Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Emblematic Art and Imagery

"In Occasionem"

The structure uses a question-and-answer format. The lady depicted is called “Occasio Calvata” (The Bald Opportunity/Passion). This image is part of a political pamphlet where the central idea is repeated consistently. The designs are repetitive: the image is surrounded by a frame, followed by the text. The woman in the image resembles a Venus figure.

"Pulchritudo sine fructu"

In this image, we see a tree—a cypress—in the middle of a hill. There are more hills behind it. One of the distant hills features a structure resembling a coliseum, and further back are more hills and mountains. They appear to be located on the coast. In the sky, we can observe only one cloud and four birds.

The Pre-Raphaelite

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

1. Justice and the Principle of Utility

Why is Justice a Problem for Utilitarianism?

The Principle of Utility often faces challenges regarding justice. One perspective suggests that it is acceptable for inequalities to develop if they meet two conditions:

1. They contribute to the overall good in the long run.
2. They can be achieved by anyone (fair opportunity).

4. Moral Issues Raised by Computers

Defining Analogical Reasoning in Ethics

Analogical reasoning serves as a crucial tool for comparing known moral baselines to situations where the morality is uncertain. By comparing similar cases that the observer already understands, conclusions can be drawn about a new, relatively similar topic.

Are Computer Ethics Truly New?

(See also Section 9 for further discussion... Continue reading "Key Ethical Concepts: Justice, Corporate Responsibility, and Software IP" »

Plato

Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. Uses thought to advance the Socratic dialogue. Dualistic Vision

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Pluralistic Vision

Socrates

Greek philosopher; Socratic method--questioning; sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth

Alexander the Great

Student of Aristotle, King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Academy

school of philosophy founded by... Continue reading "Plato vs. Aristotle: Philosophy, Society, and Human Nature" »

Determinism and the Concept of Freedom

According to determinism, everything that happens is determined by prior causes. To say that A determines B is to say that A causes B (given A, B must follow). Determinism holds that every event is the necessary result of the chain of causes leading up to it, a chain that runs back into the past. One implication of this view is that all future states of the universe are completely predictable.

The principle that every event is caused is known as the causal principle. It is presupposed in science and also in everyday life. Most of the astonishing progress science has made over the past four centuries has been made on the basis of a mechanistic and deterministic view of the world. If determinism is right,... Continue reading "Determinism, Materialism, and the Nature of Free Will" »

According to Marxist theory, the mode of production determines the structure of society. The capitalist mode, based on the private ownership of the means of production, divides society into two antagonistic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The nature and structure of any society are defined by the prevailing mode of production. A change in this mode of production also transforms the entire social system, including its ideas and institutions. Such a change in the mode of production constitutes a revolution.

Karl Marx analyzed the evolution of the production process across various historical societies, demonstrating how it has changed throughout history depending on the mode of production in each period. He identified two key levels:... Continue reading "Marxist Theory: Production, Class, and Ideology" »

Descartes and the Challenge of Modernity

Descartes faces the challenge of modernity by trying to unify the fundamental knowledge of science and philosophy.

This unification is achieved through mathematical expression that is intuitive rather than deductive.

The method revolves around the self, which becomes the center of philosophy in two ways:

• The self is the beginning of the method.
• The self is the certainty of that knowledge and shares the great theme of modern philosophy, as opposed to medieval philosophy, in which God and the world were the key issues.

By focusing on self-philosophical inquiry, Descartes comes to idealism. Idealism posits that we cannot know reality directly but indirectly through ideas. It is divided into:

• Rationalists: Ideas

Are Robots Superior to Humans?

We are all fascinated by machines made of inorganic matter. Isaac Asimov's (1920-1992) classic book, I, Robot, illustrates the profound influence robots have on a civilization that becomes entirely dependent on them.

The Three Laws of Robotics

In Asimov's novel, robots are programmed to follow three immutable laws:

• First Law: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
• Second Law: A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
• Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

The Perfection of Logic

The primary appeal of the... Continue reading "Isaac Asimov's I, Robot: The Philosophy of Robotics" »

The Hegelian Dialectic

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel developed a doctrine of great depth and significance to the history of philosophy. His work, considered the last great philosophical system, synthesized almost all previous theories. His thought marked the culmination of modern philosophy and served as the starting point for contemporary discourse, which is largely a response to Hegel from various perspectives.

The Core of Hegelian Philosophy

The core of Hegelian philosophy is the discovery of a method that suggests the absolute: the dialectic. For Hegel, this method is synonymous with consciousness or thought. He posits that the "Idea" is everything, representing the most radical expression of idealism, which denies the existence of the Kantian... Continue reading "Understanding Hegel's Dialectic: Logic and Reality" »