Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Russian Empire: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval (1613-1917)

The Russian Empire, ruled by the Tsar or emperor, was an autocratic state governed by divine right. From 1613 to 1917, this vast empire covered approximately one-sixth of the planet's landmass. The Tsar held absolute power, including the authority to appoint or depose ministers and provincial governors at will.

A symbol of Russia's ambition and scale was the Trans-Siberian Railway, stretching 6,000 miles from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Similar to European industrialization, Russia's modernization efforts were largely funded by its workers and peasants, whose difficult situation sharply contrasted with that of the landowners.

In urban centers, industrialization... Continue reading "Russia's Imperial Era: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval" »

The French Revolution

The French Revolution: In 1789, King Louis XVI convened the assembly to announce new taxes to improve the economy. However, the privileged refused to renounce their advantages. Before 1789, members of the Third Estate proclaimed a National Assembly, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

1st Stage: Moderate Revolution (1789-1792)

Louis XVI sent troops to Paris, triggering a reaction from the people who stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power.

2nd Stage: Republic and Reign of Terror (1792-1795)

In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France, aiming to restore the Ancien Régime. The radical Jacobins, supported by the people of Paris, seized power, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the Republic.... Continue reading "French Revolution & Napoleonic Era: Key Events & Timeline" »

1. Economic Policies

What are economic policies? Strategies or packages designed by governments regarding the economic driving of their country.

2. Administrative Policy Organization

Based on an administrative policy, an organization composed of various local authorities with some capacity for self-government, but dependent on the central government for main functions, is referred to as:

3. Mercantilism

"Colbert only seeks that the French are able to dispense with all other peoples (...) One of the main causes of the shortage of money in France, in the midst of such plenty of corn and wine, comes from the Dutchmen no longer seeking them, as they did in the past, because our conduct with regard to trade with them clearly shows that we do not want

Victorian Era

The Victorian era, coinciding with the reign of Queen Victoria I, marked the peak of the UK's territorial expansion and financial consolidation. This period solidified democratic practices in the UK.

Bipartisanship

The British parliamentary model is characterized by its marked bipartisanship, with power alternating between two main parties: the Conservatives, led by figures like Disraeli, and the Whigs or Liberals, with Gladstone as a prominent leader.

Bicameralism

The British parliamentary model introduced bicameralism, dividing Parliament into two representative chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Commons are elected and hold legislative power. The Lords comprises members of the nobility and individuals... Continue reading "Victorian Era to Weltpolitik: 19th Century European Politics" »

The Iron Curtain: A World Divided

The rupture between the two blocs took place in 1947 when the US president described what is known as the Truman Doctrine. It denounced the creation of communist regimes in countries occupied by the Red Army and proposed American intervention to stop the communist threat in Europe. Consequently, the US:

• Increased the number of troops and US bases in Europe.
• Proposed the Marshall Plan, an economic aid program for the reconstruction of the old continent, aiming to steer Europe away from poverty and the risk of communist expansion. Most countries accepted the US aid, which was rejected by the USSR and Eastern European countries.

In response, the USSR proposed the Zhdanov Doctrine, an act that denounced the United... Continue reading "Cold War: US-Soviet Tensions and Global Impact" »

Spain's Restoration Era: Alfonso XII and Political Stability (1874-1931)

On December 29, 1874, King Alfonso XII of Spain was proclaimed monarch, supported by an interim government led by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, which garnered widespread approval. This marked the beginning of the Spanish Restoration period, an era characterized by political stability and a new constitutional framework.

The Third Carlist War (1872-1876)

During this period, the Third Carlist War was ongoing. Don Carlos attempted to establish a stable and independent government in Estella. Alfonso XII offered amnesty to all combatants willing to abandon the conflict. Ramón Cabrera, a high-ranking Carlist army commander, accepted the offer, a fact that helped end armed Carlist... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration Era: Alfonso XII and Political Stability" »

Spain's Bourbon Restoration (1874)

The Republic faced significant resistance and lacked a broad social base on which to support itself. Power was held by Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, who attempted to stabilize a conservative republican regime. But the social base had already opted for the Alfonsine solution: the return of the son of Isabel II.

On December 29, 1874, the military pronunciamiento by Martínez Campos at Sagunto proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. Isabel II had previously abdicated in favor of her son. On December 1, Prince Alfonso de Borbón had signed the *Sandhurst Manifesto*, written by Cánovas del Castillo, which synthesized the agenda of the new Alfonsine monarchy: a conservative Catholic regime that would... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration: Alfonso XII & Cánovas" »

Liberal and Moderate Political Parties

The establishment of the liberal state brought about the existence of representative bodies. Political parties remain the instruments to provide representatives to these institutions. The great restriction of voting rights and the lack of parliamentary tradition disenfranchised the vast majority of people in party politics. This caused a militarization of political life.

Party leaders were senior military officers appearing throughout politics, a strain of the "swords": Espartero, Narváez, O'Donnell, Prim, Serrano, Pavía... In the context of the Carlist civil war, the division of the Liberals ended, and the Liberal Triennium commenced in two groups: Moderates and Progressives.

The Moderates

The Moderates,... Continue reading "Liberal and Moderate Political Parties: History & Ideologies" »

The Cánovas Restoration System

The Spanish Restoration era saw the consolidation of a conservative party system under Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. This period was marked by a political agreement between Cánovas and Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, known as the Pact of El Pardo, which ensured a peaceful alternation of power between the Conservative Party (1875-1881) and the Liberal Party (1881-1890). This system, however, was plagued by electoral corruption, often referred to as caciquismo. Power was centralized in Madrid, controlled by an oligarchy, while provincial governors and local chiefs manipulated elections, leading to widespread rigging.

Reign of Alfonso XII and Key Events

The reign of Alfonso XII (1874-1885) was crucial for the consolidation... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration Era: Politics, Society, and Nationalisms" »

Nationalist Faction (1936)

Political Power: Military control in Nationalist areas, contrasting with the Republic. Sanjurjo and Mola initially led, but Sanjurjo's death in a plane crash altered the leadership.

Military Command: A five-member junta (Mola, Cabanelles, Saliquet, Ponte, Dávila) directed the Nationalist forces, emphasizing hierarchical obedience.

Economy: The army controlled production and distribution to sustain the war effort, ensuring food supply and militarizing the economy.

Social Repression: Suppression of opposing ideas was enforced on both sides.

Nationalist Initiatives (Oct 1936 - May 1937)

Military Campaigns: Attempts to expand territory through Madrid and Málaga campaigns, involving international troops, notably Italian forces.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Nationalists and Republicans 1936-1937" »