Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

World War II

The Causes of War

Since Hitler's rise to power, German foreign policy was marked by aggression and expansionism. The Western democracies responded with appeasement, which Hitler perceived as weakness, emboldening his expansionist ambitions.

One hidden aspect of Nazi foreign policy was the planned invasion of Poland. Germany signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, including a secret protocol to partition Poland.

Development of the War

In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland.

Due to Poland's international alliances, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. This formed two opposing sides: the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (Britain, France, and other smaller countries).

The German Offensive

French Revolution

The most prominent group was the Girondins. The monarchy was abolished, and the Republic was proclaimed in 1792. Louis XVI was guillotined. Popular discontent before the war was exploited by radical Jacobins to access power. Their leader, Robespierre, proclaimed a more democratic constitution in 1793, which established universal male suffrage. He used terror and the guillotine against those who opposed the system. After Robespierre's demise via the guillotine, power shifted to members of the center, who crafted the Constitution of 1795.

The Consulate

Composition

Executive power was to be held by a directory of five members. Napoleon Bonaparte carried out several military campaigns in Italy and Egypt. He staged a coup in 1799 and... Continue reading "French Revolution, Napoleon, and Unification of Italy & Germany" »

International Involvement in the Spanish Civil War

Europe and the Western world viewed the Civil War as their own, participating directly or indirectly. It has been said that it was a civil war among Europeans. From the outset, the conflict was international: the Republicans sought help from France, Britain, and the Soviet Union, as well as nationals from Germany and Italy.

The Committee of Non-Intervention and Republican Aid

The committee of non-intervention and aid received by the Republic from Blum's Popular Front government was of great interest to Republicans. However, pressure from the right and British reluctance hindered them. Only 300 planes were able to reach them. Great Britain, concerned about the possibility of Gibraltar being affected... Continue reading "Foreign Powers and the Spanish Civil War" »

Vatican

1. Location: Vatican, Rome (IT)
2. Architect: Gian Lorenzo Bernini
3. Style: Baroque
4. Period: 1656-1667
5. Element: Lintel

Historical Context of the Baroque Period

This period is notable for the interplay between crisis and progress. Many problems occurred: social conflict, stagnation in the fields and industry, pestilence, and war. But on the other hand, it is the time when colonial empires emerged to alleviate these crises.

Cultural Context

The art center during the 17th century was in Rome. During this period, there was a scientific breakthrough in opera.

Religious Context

The principles of the Catholic Church were reaffirmed, strengthening the papacy and the Jesuits, created to curb the Counter-Reformation.

The Role of Baroque Art

The role of Baroque art... Continue reading "Villa La Rotonda: A Palladian Masterpiece" »

The First Carlist War: A Detailed Account

Phases of the First Carlist War

1. Formation of the Basque-Navarrese Insurrection (1833-1835)

   The army managed to suppress Elizabethan Carlist nuclei, except in the Basque Country and Navarra, where Carlist Colonel Zumalacarregui formed an army from the existing guerrilla bands.

2. The National Expeditions (1836-1837)

   The Carlists organized forays outside of the two nuclei in their control (Basque Country and the Mastership). Several military expeditions traveled the Cristino territory, but hardly found popular support. The most important was the actual issue.

3. The Elizabethan Initiative and the Convention of Vergara (1837-1839)

   The signing of the Convention of Vergara (1839) was symbolically sealed with the embrace

The Military Development of the War

General Franco was appointed to lead the Moroccan troops from the Canary Islands. Transporting these troops to the mainland presented a significant challenge, ultimately achieved with German and Italian air support. Once across the Strait, rebel forces advanced through Extremadura towards Madrid via the Tagus Valley. The capital's resistance in the ensuing battle shattered the rebels' hopes of a swift victory.

Key Military Campaigns

• The Northern Campaign: Rebel troops captured Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias. This campaign included the internationally infamous bombing of Guernica-Lumo. General Mola was killed during this offensive.
• The Battle of Teruel: This battle witnessed some of the fiercest fighting of the

1. Absolutism and Mercantilism

Absolutism was based on mercantilism, the economic system driven primarily by Louis XIV's finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert. He advocated for three major ideas:

• Accumulate precious metals
• Develop foreign trade
• Encourage the role of the state

2. The American Revolution: Foreign Aid

The American army, led by George Washington, was aided by foreign powers, most notably:

• France
• Spain

3. Thomas Hobbes and the Leviathan

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued in his work *Leviathan* for:

Unlimited absolute sovereign power to ensure peace and coexistence within the state.

4. Powers of the Absolute Monarch

The monarch held absolute power over several aspects, including:

• Control over entities external to the Crown:

The Bourbon Restoration

The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, was the result of a political process. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, Conservative Party leader, orchestrated Isabella's abdication and Alfonso's acceptance of the throne after promising a constitutional government.

The Restored Political System

The political system of the Restoration rested on two pillars: the Constitution of 1876 and the turnismo, or alternation in power, of two major political parties. The Conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, were heirs to the Moderates, while the Liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, descended from the Progressives.

The Constitution of 1876 was moderate yet flexible, allowing parties to govern... Continue reading "Spain: Bourbon Restoration, Crisis, and the Rise of the Republic" »

Mantecadas

A ball made of butter and other ingredients.

Cruise

Monumental stone cross at the crossroads.

Mergulheira

A person who is on a pilgrimage.

San Andres

Figurines of bread painted with colors.

Senteira

The person who sells photos of saints.

Rosquillas

Sweet with a rounded hole.

Devotee

Someone who feels admiration for something or someone.

Candela

Part of wax with wicks inside.

Exvoto

Object of wax placed in a shrine with a vote.

Sanctuary

Temple to venerate, which is the holy center of pilgrimage.

Stallion

Horse leader.

Horsehair

The horse's hair.

Greas

Flock.

Colt

Offspring of a horse.

Curro

Closed area where the horses are grouped.

Rapa

A haircut.

Scan

Garbage.

Intendant

Alderman.

Plaza de Abastos

Market.

Consistory

County.

Suburb

Neighborhood.

Patterns

List of inhabitants... Continue reading "Glossary of Terms: Galician Traditions and Language" »

History of the European Union

Post-War Cooperation and Early Treaties

In December 1947, during the Cold War, initial steps toward European integration were taken. A series of partnerships culminated in the Congress of Europe in May 1948, which advocated for political and economic union, a consultative assembly, and a European court of human rights. In January 1949, the United Kingdom, France, and the Benelux countries formed a union, establishing the Council of Europe.

On October 23, 1957, the Western European Union was created in Paris by the Benelux countries, France, Italy, and West Germany. Its goal was to coordinate economic, cultural, and military policy.

Forms of Economic Integration

• Free Trade Area: Complete elimination of tariff and