Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Economic Changes in Spain (1833-1875)

The Spanish population increased due to a decline in mortality and sustained high fertility rates. Most of the population remained rural, with 80% living in rural areas.

Agricultural Reform

Agriculture underwent significant reform, including the abolition of the feudal regime, the abolition of primogeniture, and the confiscation of lands by Mendizábal and Madoz. Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, Minister of Finance, initiated the confiscation of church property and land in 1836, dissolving religious orders. This confiscation involved the expropriation and nationalization of disentailed properties, followed by public auctions.

Secularization had three main objectives: to pay off financial debt, to expand the political... Continue reading "Spanish Economic Transformation: 1833-1875" »

French Revolution Key Questions

• c. What did the Third Estate of the States General claim?

  It claimed voting by head (per individual) rather than by order (per estate), meaning each representative would have one vote.

• d. When was the National Assembly formed? What was its main goal?

  It was formed on June 17, 1789. Its main goal was established by the Tennis Court Oath: not to disband until a constitution for France was drafted.

• e. Who were the sans-culottes?

  The sans-culottes were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution. They were often associated with radical clubs like the Jacobins.

• f. Who were the Girondins and the Jacobins?

  The Girondins were

Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics

With the Liberals in power, Alfonso did not accept Monet's proposal. However, he did not remove the power and gutters imposed on power. This undertaking involved measures against the church and the army to avoid angering them. The liberal period sought more openness on social and individual matters, removing the tax on consumption and implementing universal conscription for war. The government attempted to control the church, leading Maura to attempt to break the cycle.

Regarding the text, it can be said that they are liberal. The Conservative government opposed the law of the lock, arguing it would create more church groups. Conservatives complained because they desired more freedom for the church, as... Continue reading "Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics: A Historical Analysis" »

Canova System 8.1

The 1868 defeat of the revolution did not bring a stable monarchy. The social problem and political awareness among the public to participate in consolidation were missing.
A real middle class was missing. A group of citizens and the authorities appeared separated from the group. This was called the reinstatement period.

The Meaning of the Regime of the Restoration

After the coup, General Pavia, on January 3, 1874, headed the government of General Serrano and made an effort to end the Carlist war.
Alfonso XII, upon turning 17 years old on December 1, opened the Declaration of National Certificate of the Sandhurst Military Academy. The traditional monarchy re-established in Spain was to solve the problems at the end of... Continue reading "Canova System 1876: Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain" »

Abraham Lincoln: A Legacy of Leadership

Early Life and Political Career

Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th president of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He rose from humble beginnings on the Western frontier, largely self-educated, to become a country lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives. Despite setbacks in his early political career, including two unsuccessful attempts at a seat in the United States Senate, Lincoln's determination and leadership qualities eventually propelled him to the highest office in the land.

Presidency and the American Civil War

Lincoln's presidency was defined by the American... Continue reading "Exploring North American History and Culture: From Abraham Lincoln to Famous Figures" »

The following text is a minute from the decree written by Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, the head of government (a Spanish economist and politician, liberal progressive), addressed to the regent Maria Cristina during the minority of her daughter. It explains the desamortizador process.

Objectives of the Confiscation

The main theme of this decree is to explain the objectives of the confiscation. The primary goal of selling state-owned assets was to fulfill a promise and reduce the national debt. Secondary objectives included:

• Economic development
• Facilitating property ownership
• Boosting commerce and industry

Significance of the Confiscation

The confiscation of church lands was a key element of the liberal revolution and had significant economic and social... Continue reading "Mendizabal's Confiscation: Political, Legal, and Economic Impact" »

The Build-Up to the Spanish Civil War: 1934-1936

The Aftermath of the 1934 Uprisings

The IZDAS LIFT-10-34 was a counter-reaction to strikes and armed uprisings, most notably in Asturias and Catalonia. In Catalonia, the unrest had a political nature, with a communist general strike and Luis Companys proclaiming a Catalan Republic within Spain, which was quickly dissolved. In Asturias, the uprising had a social and revolutionary character, aiming to replace the bourgeois republic with a workers' state. This was driven by a pact between the CNT and UGT, symbolized by the initials UHP (Union of Proletarian Brothers), to fight against the bourgeoisie. The army, with civilian elements brought from Africa by Franco, was used to suppress the uprisings.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War Origins: 1934-1936 Political Unrest" »

Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876

Cánovas was instrumental to the Constitution of 1876. Even during the Revolutionary Sexenio, Cánovas had bet on the idea of the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II. He admired the way in which the British had managed to introduce a new liberal monarchy, bourgeois, bipartisan, which shared power with Parliament. He managed to create a similar model in Spain after the adoption of the Constitution of 1876 and consolidated the two-party system.

From January 1875 until the adoption of the Constitution of 1876, Cánovas had the dual mission of chairing the first government of King Alfonso XII and preparing to implement the new constitution that would bring all ideological... Continue reading "Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876: Restoration Era" »

Key Terms of Francoist Spain

Understanding the vocabulary of Francoist Spain is essential for grasping the complexities of this historical period. Here are some key terms:

The Blue Division

Spanish military union volunteers who fought on the Russian front during World War II, between 1941 and 1944.

The National Institute of Industry

Established in the postwar period to promote industrial development.

Ration Cards

Cards that were distributed among the population to buy staples.

Black Market

Speculators were selling products illegally at excessively high prices, often double or triple the official market price.

Opus Dei

An institution of the Catholic Church founded by José María Escrivá in 1941. It consists of religious and secular members, and its main... Continue reading "Key Terms of Francoist Spain: Understanding the Era" »

Argentinian Societal Shifts

Middle Class Consolidation: The Golden Age

Argentinian society underwent significant changes. The urban population increased, leading to the consolidation of the middle class. Buenos Aires experienced substantial growth, and new cities emerged. Technology was introduced into rural work, although many areas in the north saw little change. Workers sought to improve their living conditions. State growth, economic prosperity, and advances in the education system during the 1920s contributed to the formation of the middle classes. This period is often referred to as the Golden Age.

Society Amidst Crisis

The industrialization process and the national crisis led to the displacement of workers, causing migration to cities. These... Continue reading "Argentina 1920s-1930s: Society, Politics & Economic Crisis" »