Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC

In 5th century BC Athenian society, there were three distinct classes:

Citizens

This class was composed of free adult males who were children of Athenian parents during the time of Pericles (5th century BC). Citizens constituted the core of privileged people who possessed full political rights and were the only ones who could possess or acquire land in Attica.

In return, citizens were obliged to pay taxes, abide by and comply with all laws, and be mobilized for war. Among the citizens, there were significant differences in their wealth: first, members of noble families and then the townspeople formed by small farmers, traders, artisans, and sailors.

Metics

Metics means "cohabitation." Foreigners were free and... Continue reading "Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC: Citizens, Metics, and Slaves" »

4.1 Taxes and Rights

• The Seven Years’ War had doubled Britain’s national debt and increased 5-fold the cost of running and defending North America: Britain wanted more revenue from America and claimed the right to extract it.
• The Stamp Act of 1765 extended this duty to the colonies – it was the first direct tax as distinct from duties on trade. It hit merchants, lawyers and editors the hardest, leading to mob violence against British agents in Boston and other cities from the Sons of Liberty. Merchants boycotted imports from Britain.
• The Stamp Act Congress met in New York to petition the king to repeal the Stamp Act. The delegates agreed a Declaration of Right which stated that ‘no taxes be imposed on them but with their own consent’.

1. Historical-Political Analysis

The constant struggle against water compelled the civilian population to organize levee maintenance. From the 13th and 14th centuries, "tips" formed to regulate their control.

Furthermore, the nature of their land prevented the consolidation of a powerful landed aristocracy, and feudalism did not take root. The inhabitants were predominantly smallholder farmers.

The current Kingdom of the Netherlands is the historical successor of the former Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands North. It emerged as an independent entity after the Wars of Religion of the 16th and 17th centuries.

This historical period, known as the Eighty Years' War, was a continuous conflict against the Hispanic Monarchy from the... Continue reading "The Netherlands: A Political History" »

Before Henry I, the two moments belonged to the king because bishops were feudal lords in first place, so the king had the right to choose them. In times of Henry II, the church is going to have a reform known as the Gregorian Reform, and one of the things that the church wanted was to be independent from the king. So this was the first battle, the first moment of tension between the King and the Church.

There was an agreement and Henry I retained the right to choose the bishop, but then the ceremony remained totally religious. So to the eyes of the world it was the Church who invested the bishop.

Henry I had one daughter, Mathilda, but he had no male heirs. That was a problem because it had never been a woman ruling England. Mathilda was married

The new king is going to be Henry III (1216-1272), Son of John. He is going to succeed his father at the age of 9, so there was a Regent supervising his decisions. We have to wait some years until henry Becomes king and begin to rule the kingdom himself. But he made some wrong Decisions:

For one thing he surrounded himself With a number of favourites, which were not Contemplated with very good eyes by the rest of the nobility. The favourites Occupied places of responsibility.
 The second problem is that during his Reign he broke a number of points contained in the Magna Carta. This is because The degree of control was very high and it was difficult for kings to accept All the points in it. This situation lead to what happened in the year 1258:... Continue reading "The Reign of Henry III and the Rise of Parliament in England" »

American Involvement in World War I

• After the outbreak of war in 1914, the USA declared itself neutral, arguing that it was a European conflict that did not concern America.

• Initially, public opinion was in favor of staying out of the war, despite strong sympathies for Britain and her Allies, and the potential damage to U.S. economic interests.

• President Wilson sent his aide Colonel House to try to broker a peace, but to no avail.

• In 1915, circumstances changed when the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat, killing 1,200 including 128 Americans.

• Wilson demanded an immediate end to unrestricted submarine warfare, but his declaration that America was ‘too proud to fight’, meaning that America should... Continue reading "American Involvement in World War I & II: From Neutrality to Victory" »

Then a second woman appeared in his life, Anne Boleyn. This fact, together with the impossibility of having a son with Catherine, led him to want to end his marriage. However, it was difficult because Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, who sacked Rome and imprisoned the Pope, so he could not dissolve the matrimony. To solve the problem, he created a parallel church in England: the Anglican Church, and gave himself the title of Supreme Head. So, finally, he could divorce Catherine and marry Anne. This produced a lot of religious tension all over Europe and many conflicts. Once again, he had a daughter named Elizabeth. At this moment, his decline began due to the impossibility of having a male heir. Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery, so she... Continue reading "Henry VIII's Reign: England's Religious Shift" »

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BETIKO

The Impact of the Penal Laws

Another negative aspect was the imposition of the so-called Penal Laws, which were a series of laws imposed in an attempt to force Irish Catholics to accept the reformed denomination as defined by the Anglican Church. Many Catholics were persecuted. Another aspect imposed had to do with the distribution of the land: Puritans could give the whole land to their descendants. However, Catholics had to divide it, so the value of the land diminished, and this worsened over generations. Oliver Cromwell imposed these laws because during the First Civil War the King counted on the help of Catholics, so it was like revenge.

1653 – 1658: The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell

During this period, Oliver Cromwell took full control... Continue reading "The Restoration and Reign of Charles II: A Transformative Era" »

One of the major issues was religion, which became a central point of conflict. The problem stemmed from the king, who was an Anglican but became a Catholic almost at the point of death. This created a problem from the very beginning. The Houses of Parliament were divided into two dominant groups: the Whig group and the Tory group. The Whigs were called 'Roundheads' and the Tories were called 'Cavaliers' during the Civil War. The fact that the king was surrounded by Catholics made things very difficult. The Tories were ready to support the king; the Whigs were less ready to support the king because they had supported Parliament during the Civil War.

Accession of James II (1685)

Charles II died without a legitimate heir, so his successor had to... Continue reading "The Glorious Revolution of 1688" »