Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Adam Smith: book-the wealthofnations. Free market/ free economy/ 3 natural laws. 1.The law of self interest. "why work? For me" 2. Law of competition. More businesses=more competition= beter product 3.Law of suply and demand. Free trade=no regulation (no government).

working-class political movements:

The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)

During the reign of Isabella II, Spain's moderate liberal party remained in government. The Moderate Government converted Spain into a conservative and centralist liberal state. In 1845, a new constitution was adopted. Suffrage was restricted, sovereignty shared between the courts and the crown. The state signed the concordat with the Holy See, agreeing to finance the church and stop privatization. In some periods, moderate liberals adopted measures to stop centralist taxes and create penal and national education systems. The political system weakened. The monarchy was politically active, favoring competition among the aristocracy, military, and clergy for the favor of the queen, which led to corruption. Moderates... Continue reading "Spain's Political Landscape: From Moderate Liberals to Republic" »

Mahatma Gandhi: A Life Dedicated to Truth and Non-Violence

Early Life and Influences

Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), affectionately known as Mahatma Gandhi and Bapuji, was born on October 2nd, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. His father served as a Dewan in Porbandar and Rajkot, where Gandhi received his early education. Married at the age of 12 to Kasturbai, he later traveled to London to study law, qualifying for the Bar in 1891.

Gandhi's transformative experience in South Africa (1893-1914), where he fought against racial discrimination and injustice, shaped his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and non-violent resistance. He emerged as a prominent leader and advocate for human dignity.

The Gandhi Era and Indian Independence

Returning... Continue reading "Mahatma Gandhi: Life, Philosophy, and Political Ideals" »

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Literature (449-1066)

Old English literature, also referred to as Anglo-Saxon literature, is dated between 449/600 (the invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) and 1100/1200 (the establishment of Norman rule). It is hypothesized that until the sixth century BC, the British Isles were inhabited by Iberians, and from the sixth to seventh centuries BC by Celts. It also represents the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England.

This period was characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles, resulting in the mixing of several races, languages, and cultures. Life was mostly centered on ancestral tribes or clans. Initially, people... Continue reading "Anglo-Saxon Literature: History, Culture, and Key Works" »

Features in Modern English: Orthography and Phonology

Orthography

Fixing and Reducing Spelling Variation

• Spelling Reform Debate: Spelling reform in accordance with pronunciation was proposed but not successful due to its radical nature (e.g., John Hart's 'An Orthographie').
• Regularization of Spelling: Regularization based on traditional and etymological grounds proved successful.
• Standardization by 1700: By 1700, English largely became standardized, making texts from that period onward relatively easy for modern readers.
• Reflection of Late 15th-Century Pronunciation: Modern orthography reflects the pronunciation of the late 15th century.
• Changes in Orthographic Conventions: Distinction of graphemes u/v and i/j emerged.
• Etymological Respellings: Scholars

The Cold War: US vs. USSR Geopolitical Tension

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union with its satellite states (the Eastern Bloc), and the United States with its allies (the Western Bloc) after World War II (WWII).

Ideological Divide

Basically, the two superpowers battled for influence in the fields of science, industry, sports, and military. The USSR started setting up pro-Soviet governments in satellite countries, and both the US and the USSR were very strict regarding their policies.

Key Events of the Cold War

• 1949: Europe is divided into two blocs, separated by the Iron Curtain. The USSR tests its first atomic bomb. The US creates

Democracy in the 19th Century

• Democratic movements advocated for the right of ordinary people to participate in politics. Supporters aimed to end the social and economic inequalities created by bourgeois liberalism.
• The petite bourgeoisie rejected the limited male suffrage imposed by the wealthy bourgeois.
• Key principles supported by 19th-century democrats included:
  • Universal manhood suffrage: The belief that all men should have the right to vote.
  • A preference for a republic as the form of government, considering hereditary monarchy incompatible with democracy.

19th Century Political Revolutions

• These revolutions finally brought an end to absolute monarchy in many areas.
• They were based on the principles of liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.

The

What is a Global City?

A global city, also known as a world city, is generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system (e.g., New York). It is a city that has a significant component of transnational elites.

Rome is a globalized (diversely global) city known around the world for its historical, demographic, and cultural trends, such as its image as a center of religious heritage. Rome has been crucial in the development of modern tourism, which is considered one of the side effects of economics.

Stereotypes

A stereotype is to believe unfairly that all people or things with a particular characteristic are the same. Common stereotypes of Rome include:

• The Eternal City (never-lasting)
• Romantic, free, and fun
• City of layers
• Ancient

Origins of the Second World War (WWII)

The origins of the Second World War can be found in the world order created after the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles caused feelings of humiliation and resentment among the Germans and Italians, who refused to accept the restrictions imposed.

Totalitarian Regimes and Expansionism

As we have seen, the fascist regimes in Italy and Nazi Germany developed expansionist policies that aspired to expand their territorial boundaries and challenged the consensus established within the League of Nations (LN). To achieve this, they strengthened their armies, encouraged militarism, and became involved in an intense arms race.

Escalation of Aggression in the 1930s

In the 1930s, the authoritarian states began a... Continue reading "Global Crises and Totalitarianism: WWII, Depression, Revolutions" »

2. THE FIRST World War

Was fought between 1914 and 1918, by various European countries and their colonies, the USA, Japan, China and some Latin American republics.

2.1. The causes of the war:

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire competed for control of the Balkans. At the same time, Serbia was angry about the expansion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into the area.

• France wanted to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to the German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War. France and Germany also competed for control of Morocco.

• Great Britain saw the supremacy of each merchant navy threatened when the German Empire, become an economic power

These disputes created a pre-war atmosphere, and the European powers continued