Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Radical-CEDA Biennium: The Revolution of 1934

The dissolution of parliament in September 1933 ended the alliance between the Radical Party and the Socialists under Azaña. The right wing reorganized during the biennium, with two main trends. First, the opposition to the Republic, including Monarchists, Traditionalists, and Fascists (JONS, Falange Española), who merged in 1934. Second, the Republican right, composed of CEDA and Acción Popular. The political campaign was very tense, revealing a deep division in society. The Socialists considered CEDA and its leader, Gil Robles, to be fascist and threatened a revolution if the right won the elections. The right, in turn, regarded the Socialists as revolutionary, aiming to revise the Constitution... Continue reading "Spain's Tumultuous 1930s: Radicalization, Elections, and the Popular Front" »

This document assesses the industrial development of Spain and Catalonia in relation to the more industrialized countries of Europe. Spain took a while to develop its industry. As we can see in the graphic, other countries were already highly industrialized by the year 1870, whereas Spain and Catalonia, seven years later, in 1877, were not yet equal to other countries. Most of its economic sector continued to be based on the primary sector, and there was very little population engaged in the secondary and tertiary sectors. We can also observe that Catalonia became industrialized before the rest of Spain.

Obstacles to Industrialization in Spain

Spaniards encountered the problem of a lack of money. They had only the money necessary to live, and... Continue reading "Spain's Industrialization: Challenges and Economic Impact" »

As soon as there was resistance from the Republic, it had a social base on which it was sustained. The power of the Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, attempted to stabilize a conservative republic. However, the social base had opted for the Alfonsina solution: the return of a new model of liberalism with an endemic precedent. This included the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. There were two objectives: to develop a constitution that structured a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first policy measure was the convening of elections for a Constituent Assembly, as the constitution... Continue reading "The Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain: 1876-1898" »

Tsarist Russia and the Path to Revolution

In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Duma, a parliament, existed but could be dissolved at the Tsar's will.

1905: Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday

The Russian army suffered defeat against Japanese troops. On January 9th, a peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace was violently suppressed, resulting in Bloody Sunday. Workers organized into soviets (popular assemblies). The October Manifesto was signed but later violated by the Tsar.

World War I and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia entered World War I in 1914 unprepared, leading to numerous defeats. In 1917, widespread demonstrations and a general strike forced the Tsar to abdicate, leading to a provisional government.

The Bolshevik

The Spanish War of Independence

The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm forecasts that Napoleon's invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities such as Girona, Zaragoza, and Tarragona, subjected to sieges by French troops, pinned down the French army and prevented progress towards the Levant.

Moreover, the defeat of the invaders in Bailén forced José I to leave Madrid, and much of the imperial army retreated north of the Ebro. Napoleon went to Spain in November to lead the counteroffensive. In January 1809, Joseph I returned to Madrid, and by 1809, French rule spread throughout Spain.

Guerrilla Warfare and Spanish Resistance

Resistance to the invasion was carried out by the guerrillas, small local... Continue reading "The Spanish War of Independence: Resistance and Ideologies" »

Political Parties in the Second Spanish Republic

Following the proclamation of the Republic, a provisional government was formed. It represented all the forces that signed the Pact of San Sebastián:

• Liberal Republican Right: Alcalá Zamora (President), Miguel Maura (Interior)
• Radical Republican Party: Lerroux (State), Martínez Barrio (Communications)
• Republican Action: Azaña (War)
• Radical Socialist Republican Party: Marcelino Domingo (Education), Álvaro Albornoz (Development), Nicolau D'Oliver (Economy), Casares Quiroga (Navy)
• PSOE: Indalecio Prieto (Finance), Fernando de los Rios (Justice), Largo Caballero (Labor)

It was not a revolutionary government. The members were mostly middle-class men aware of the need to modernize the country, but supporters... Continue reading "Spanish Second Republic: Parties & Early Challenges" »

Porguerra Ecnomus: The Situation: There were heavy losses and spending; the only exception was the U.S., which became the great industrial power. They had to resort to inflation, state intervention, and other measures that contradicted the principles of economic liberalism. The post-war unrest in Europe attempted to recover the normal pre-war economy.

Crisis of 1929: The U.S. was the best reflection of confidence in the future, experiencing a significant economic expansion. The population contracted credits and speculated on the New York Stock Exchange, aiming for profits. October 24, 1929, was Black Thursday on Wall Street. That year, several warnings generated suspicion among speculators, leading to a massive sell-off as everyone wanted to... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Crises and Their Impact on Society" »

Immediate Effects of WWI in Europe

The aftermath of World War I led to the dissolution of authoritarian empires and the emergence of new republics with parliamentary systems. Democracy was consolidated in some nations, with the introduction of male suffrage and benefits like 8-hour workdays and unemployment support. However, the 1920s saw Europe grapple with economic hardship due to inflation, declining yields, and rising unemployment, exacerbated by the 1929 crisis.

Social unrest, including strikes and protests, further destabilized the continent. These demonstrations were often met with harsh repression, limiting trade union rights and fueling political turmoil.

Oldest Democracies and Post-War Crisis

Faced with economic chaos and social unrest,... Continue reading "Post-WWI Europe: Political Shifts, Economic Crisis, and Fascism" »

The First World War

The First World War (1914-1918) was the most serious international conflict that the world had experienced at the time. Countries on different continents entered the combat. In 1918, the fighting stopped, and peace negotiations began. The first peace treaty was signed in 1919. Known at the time as the "Great War," all countries tried to create a network of alliances that would prepare them for war. The war began with the assassination of the heir of Austria. Heads of state of countries were prime.

The Moroccan Crisis

There were several conflicts in the early twentieth century, including the Agadir incident. Agadir was a port town with a natural interest to many powers. Germany claimed that that aspect, rather than being only... Continue reading "Causes and Consequences of World War I: Treaties" »

Unit 1: The Old Regime and the Enlightenment

The Old Regime

Old Regime was the name given by French revolutionaries to the era before the 1789 revolution. Later, historians used this term to describe the political, economic, and social characteristics of Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries.

Enlightened Despotism

In the second half of the 18th century, some kings tried to reconcile absolutism with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Thus emerged Enlightened Despotism, a form of government outlined in the principle "all for the people, but without the people." In it, the monarch continued to concentrate all powers, but was considered the first servant of the state, carrying out certain reforms to achieve progress and happiness of his... Continue reading "Old Regime & Enlightenment: Europe (15th-18th Centuries)" »