Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Spanish Civil War

The Siege of Madrid

In the summer and autumn, General Mola attempted to take Madrid from the northeast. However, his forces were detained at the pass by the Republican Army of the Sierra de Guadarrama. There was an attempt to retake the capital in the Battle of Jarama, but after thousands of deaths, the Nationalist Army was defeated in its objectives. In the Battle of Guadalajara, the Nationalist Army was defeated by the Republicans, with thousands of Italian soldiers killed.

The city of Madrid was defended by a defense council led by General Miaja. General Franco, upon receiving permission to take Madrid, diverted his forces to liberate the Alcázar of Toledo. This delayed the advance on Madrid for three years. Finally,... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Key Battles and International Impact" »

That should already be sufficient to ensure order and to prevent possible riots (popular or Carlist), recalling that "the insurgency is no longer a right from the time when universal suffrage without appeal to the barbaric use of weapons."

The text continues with the first plans of the Republic: universal suffrage, stressing the elimination of the illegalities that were committed previously to falsify the elections as "coercion, deception, violence, and fraud" (done many times before with the help of their own governors).

Conclusion

The text is entirely subjective, as it tries to spread Republican ideals and show in what respects it improves over other ideologies that have failed before. We know its authenticity not only because it was written... Continue reading "First Spanish Republic: Origins, Ideals, and Impact" »

Military Organizations of the Cold War

After dividing the world into two blocs, the following military organizations were created:

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Formed by Western Bloc countries, including the USA, Canada, UK, France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.

Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, and Spain in 1982.

The entrance of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact.

• Warsaw Pact: Created in 1955, it comprised Eastern Bloc countries such as East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Besides these two main blocs, other organizations also existed.

Early Stages of the Cold War (1948-1953)

• Czechoslovakia: The confrontation between

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The 1931 Constitution established a separation of powers, although priority was given to Parliament. Parliament had the power to control the government's actions, and even consisted of the President of the Republic. In contrast, the President had very limited powers. Finally, the Constitutional Court was established to ensure the legality of laws enacted by the government.

Another important aspect was the Church-State separation. Key features included:

• The definition of Spain as an integral state compatible with the autonomy of municipalities.
• Castilian as the official language.
• Finally, abandoning war in its external relations.

The most controversial aspect was its anti-clerical stance. Freedom of worship, the abolition... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution of 1931 and the Second Republic" »

The Political Model of the Second Republic

Left-Wing Parties

This category includes Republican parties, those supporting regional autonomy, and workers' parties.

Bourgeois Left-Wing Republican Parties

• Republican Action: Founded by Manuel Azaña, this party comprised leftist intellectuals. Its political ideology centered on the modernization of social and political structures. During the first two years of the Republic, it collaborated closely with the PSOE.
• Radical Socialist Party: Created by Marcelino Domingo, its ideology was very similar to Republican Action. Domingo served as Minister of Public Instruction. This party later merged with Republican Action and ORGA to form Republican Left.
• Republican Union: Founded by Diego Martínez Barrio after

Economic Changes in Spain (1833-1875)

The Spanish population increased due to a decline in mortality and sustained high fertility rates. Most of the population remained rural, with 80% living in rural areas.

Agricultural Reform

Agriculture underwent significant reform, including the abolition of the feudal regime, the abolition of primogeniture, and the confiscation of lands by Mendizábal and Madoz. Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, Minister of Finance, initiated the confiscation of church property and land in 1836, dissolving religious orders. This confiscation involved the expropriation and nationalization of disentailed properties, followed by public auctions.

Secularization had three main objectives: to pay off financial debt, to expand the political... Continue reading "Spanish Economic Transformation: 1833-1875" »

French Revolution Key Questions

• c. What did the Third Estate of the States General claim?

  It claimed voting by head (per individual) rather than by order (per estate), meaning each representative would have one vote.

• d. When was the National Assembly formed? What was its main goal?

  It was formed on June 17, 1789. Its main goal was established by the Tennis Court Oath: not to disband until a constitution for France was drafted.

• e. Who were the sans-culottes?

  The sans-culottes were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution. They were often associated with radical clubs like the Jacobins.

• f. Who were the Girondins and the Jacobins?

  The Girondins were

Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics

With the Liberals in power, Alfonso did not accept Monet's proposal. However, he did not remove the power and gutters imposed on power. This undertaking involved measures against the church and the army to avoid angering them. The liberal period sought more openness on social and individual matters, removing the tax on consumption and implementing universal conscription for war. The government attempted to control the church, leading Maura to attempt to break the cycle.

Regarding the text, it can be said that they are liberal. The Conservative government opposed the law of the lock, arguing it would create more church groups. Conservatives complained because they desired more freedom for the church, as... Continue reading "Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics: A Historical Analysis" »

Canova System 8.1

The 1868 defeat of the revolution did not bring a stable monarchy. The social problem and political awareness among the public to participate in consolidation were missing.
A real middle class was missing. A group of citizens and the authorities appeared separated from the group. This was called the reinstatement period.

The Meaning of the Regime of the Restoration

After the coup, General Pavia, on January 3, 1874, headed the government of General Serrano and made an effort to end the Carlist war.
Alfonso XII, upon turning 17 years old on December 1, opened the Declaration of National Certificate of the Sandhurst Military Academy. The traditional monarchy re-established in Spain was to solve the problems at the end of... Continue reading "Canova System 1876: Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain" »

Abraham Lincoln: A Legacy of Leadership

Early Life and Political Career

Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th president of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He rose from humble beginnings on the Western frontier, largely self-educated, to become a country lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives. Despite setbacks in his early political career, including two unsuccessful attempts at a seat in the United States Senate, Lincoln's determination and leadership qualities eventually propelled him to the highest office in the land.

Presidency and the American Civil War

Lincoln's presidency was defined by the American... Continue reading "Exploring North American History and Culture: From Abraham Lincoln to Famous Figures" »