Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Urban Society

Bourgeoisie: a new social group emerged in these cities. They were not tied to a lord or participated in the feudal relations. They were merchants and bankers, and quickly became the richest citizens.

• There was also a poorer population: servants, laborers, beggars, or fugitive serfs who did the hard work.
• Many towns had a Jewish population who lived in Jewish quarters or ghettos.
• There were also Moorish quarters, where the Muslims lived.

The Economy of a Medieval City

Trade: the most important function of a city. Usually, the cities celebrated fairs, where people from other cities came to sell their products.

• Currency: in the Early Middle Ages, the Roman currency was replaced by bartering. But now, we can see gold coins again working

Global Economic Imbalances

The United States benefitted hugely from the First World War. None of its land had been destroyed, its human losses were relatively small, and sales of food, weapons, and industrial products to the allies had benefitted it enormously. By the time the war ended, the United States had become the world's leading economic power. Its agricultural production was very high, and its industrial production represented 44.8% of global production. Its higher level of competitiveness opened up international markets to its products, which invaded the global markets that had previously been dominated by European industries. In addition, many European countries were indebted to the United States as a result of the war loans.

In contrast... Continue reading "Global Economic Imbalances: The Impact of World War I and the Great Depression" »

Gandhi's Intervention in Champaran: A Victory for Indigo Sharecroppers

The Plight of Indigo Sharecroppers

Indigo sharecroppers in Champaran faced severe exploitation under the British colonial system. They were forced to cultivate indigo on a significant portion of their land and surrender the entire harvest as rent, leading to perpetual debt and hardship.

Gandhi's Arrival and Investigation

Rajkumar Shukla, a determined peasant, sought Mahatma Gandhi's help to address the grievances of the sharecroppers. Gandhi, moved by their plight, traveled to Champaran and conducted a thorough investigation, exposing the injustices faced by the farmers.

Civil Disobedience and Negotiation

Gandhi employed his philosophy of Satyagraha, advocating for nonviolent... Continue reading "Gandhi's Triumph in Champaran: A Turning Point in India's Freedom Struggle" »

Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Early Contact with Moctezuma

Juan de Grijalva sailed from Santiago, Cuba, in April 1518, following the route established by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Córdoba had discovered the Yucatán Peninsula and returned with enough wealth to encourage another venture. Grijalva reached the limits of Moctezuma’s empire, obtaining gold from Aztec merchants and meeting Pinotl, an Aztec official. Pinotl delivered news of the Spaniards to Tenochtitlan. When Moctezuma heard the Spanish might soon arrive, he grew concerned, believing they might be associated with the return of the god Quetzalcoatl.

Cortés and the Quetzalcoatl Myth

The third Spanish expedition to Mexico was led by Hernán Cortés in 1519. He founded the town... Continue reading "Hernán Cortés and the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire" »

The Manchurian Crisis

Japan's Characteristics in the 1920s

In the 1920s, Japan possessed:

• A very powerful army and navy.
• A strong industry.
• Significant exports of goods to the USA and China.
• A growing empire, including the Korean Peninsula.

Impact of the Depression on Japan

The Great Depression had significant consequences for Japan:

• Both China and the USA imposed tariffs against Japanese goods.
• The Japanese economy entered a crisis.
• Without trade, Japan couldn't feed its people.

Reasons for Invading Manchuria

An incident in Manchuria provided Japan with an opportunity to expand its territory and influence.

Japan's Actions in Manchuria

Japan already controlled the South Manchurian Railway. When Chinese soldiers allegedly invaded it, Japanese forces overran... Continue reading "The Manchurian Crisis and the Failure of 1930s Disarmament" »

The Decline and Partial Restoration of the Fueros (1839-1868)

Under General Espartero, a new decree (1841) was issued for the 3 Basque provinces: General Juntas and Councils were abolished, civil governors would be appointed to the Basque provinces from Madrid, tolls were changed to the seaports, and tax exemption and exemption from conscription and civil law were maintained.

Another new law was issued for Navarre called Ley Paccionada (16 Aug 1841). Through this law, Navarre ceased to be a kingdom and became a province, the old Cortes of Navarre and the tax exemption were abolished, Navarre lost its legislative power, and tolls were set up on the Pyrenees border with France. The province could still raise taxes, and a fixed amount, a quota,... Continue reading "The Fueros and the Carlist Wars: A History of Basque Politics in the 19th Century" »

Lot of people were killed during the war, but the killings did not stop and a period of official state reprisal began. Those suspected of affiliation with pro-republic ideologies were summarily rounded up and executed. Many people fled the country.

The new Francoist state officially branded Biscay and Gipuzcoa as ‘traitorous’ provinces. This served to legitimize the state terror imposed on the inhabitants of the two provinces. Inhabitants were terrorized for being Basque.

Measures:

• Total suppression of the Basque language
• Only university in the Basque Provinces was closed
• Libraries of social and cultural associations were seized by troops and there was mass burning of books in Basque
• Teaching of the language was prohibited in all schools
• The use

Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance created by the USSR and the people democracies in Eastern Europe to defend themselves from the capitalist bloc. The GDR was a new style created in the part controlled by the USSR in the German territory. It was created in 1949 and existed until 1990 when the two German reunified. It was a single party with a planned economy.

United Nations

The United Nations was an organization created on June 20th, 1945, in the conference of San Francisco to replace the League of Nations. Its main objectives initially were maintaining peace worldwide, promoting international cooperation, respecting human rights, and promoting the self-determination of colonies.

Normandy Landing

The Normandy Landing was the arrival... Continue reading "Warsaw Pact, GDR, United Nations, Normandy Landing, Revolution of 1905, Soviets, February Revolution of 1917, October Revolution of 1917" »

Civil War & Reconstruction Era

1. Worrying about anti-slavery sentiment in Europe contributed to Lincoln's decision to address the issue of slavery.
2. The Civil War ended when Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia.
3. One of President Lincoln's goals for Reconstruction was to reunify the nation.
4. The outcome of the impeachment proceedings against President Johnson was that the House impeached the President, but the Senate failed to remove him.
5. During his presidency, Ulysses S. Grant gave high-level advisory posts to untrustworthy friends and acquaintances.

Industrialization & Urban Life

6. Electricity was an innovation that extended the number of hours in a day that Americans could work and play.
7. Samuel Gompers was a labor leader