Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The History of Al-Andalus

Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (8th Century)

In the 8th century, Muslim armies, expanding far beyond the Arabian Peninsula, crossed into the Iberian Peninsula in 711 CE. This marked a continuation of Islamic expansion across the Mediterranean region, fueled by a civil war within the Visigothic Kingdom. The Muslims, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, defeated the Visigoth King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Musa ibn Nusayr, the Muslim governor of North Africa, soon followed with reinforcements.

Independent Emirate of Cordoba (756-929)

Abd al-Rahman I, fleeing the Abbasid Revolution, established the independent Emirate of Cordoba in 756 CE. This marked the beginning of a unique era in Islamic history.

Caliphate of Cordoba

The Consulate (1799-1804)

Napoleon staged a coup on 18 Brumaire, ending the Directory. He was initially supported mainly by the moderate bourgeoisie, but soon gained the support of all the French people, aiming to end revolts and achieve economic stability.

The Napoleonic Empire

By 1802, Napoleon consolidated power, becoming First Consul of France. During this time, France was fighting against the Coalitions, but now, with Napoleon leading his armies, it was unstoppable. This consolidation of power and popular support led him to crown himself emperor in 1804.

The Restoration Era

The victorious powers met in Vienna to restore Europe to its pre-French Revolution state (1814). Principles of the Congress of Vienna:

• End liberalism and national sovereignty:

Decolonization

Definition

Process that began in 1945 and led to the dismantlement of the colonial empires and the independence of their colonies. It affected over half of the world's surface.

Causes

1. World War II: Colonies became aware of their own importance as their colonizers' prestige was reduced.
2. Nationalist Movements: After the war, nationalistic ideas fueled by liberalism and Marxism spread through colonies.
3. Emergence of Charismatic Leaders: The elites of many colonized nations had studied in European universities. When they returned, they formed political parties and took the lead in the independence process.
4. International Support: Support grew from groups of intellectuals, Christians, international movements, and the newly created UN.

Stages

1. 1945-

Consequences of WWI

Short-term: Economic depression, 16,000,000 deaths, Germany lost support, destruction, League of Nations.

Long-term: Extremism (fascism, communism), loss of colonies and territories, new countries, WWII and Cold War.

Definitions

Armistice: Agreement made by opposing sides in a war to stop fighting for a certain time; a truce.

Allied Powers: Nations joined for mutual benefit (Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and the United States).

Balkans: Also called the Balkan Peninsula, the easternmost of Europe’s three great southern peninsulas.

Central Powers: Nations fighting against the Allied Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire).

Conscript: To enlist someone obligatorily into the armed services.

Kaiser: German... Continue reading "Understanding the First World War: A Comprehensive Analysis" »

Añoveros' 1974 Homily on Basque Rights

Introduction: The Bishop and the Context

This text discusses a homily by Fernando Añoveros, a bishop from Biscay who held religious authority. The subject is the 'Basque problem,' referring to the suppression of Basque culture, language, and media under General Franco's dictatorship. This religious homily was delivered on February 24, 1974, shortly after the assassination of Carrero Blanco.

Franco's Dictatorship and the Basque Country

The imposition of Franco's dictatorship in the Basque Country meant the end of all freedom and self-government for the region. Franco distinguished between the Basque territories based on their stance during the Spanish Civil War:

• Loyal Provinces: Álava and Navarre, which had

Life in France Before the Revolution

Peasants

In the countryside, French agriculture (farming) in the 1600s was less effective and less modernized than other European countries. They used out-of-date methods and made much less profit. Almost all peasants who worked on farms couldn't read or write and worked long, brutal hours for a poor quality of life. City peasants were homeless, criminals, thieves, and prostitutes.

Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie was France's middle class. Many were businessmen and merchants. However, their ability to make a profit was severely hampered by laws and regulations. Some individuals and groups (guilds) held advantages (monopolies) over the production of certain goods.

Nobility

Noble Rank

Clergy

Christian Church

Louis XIV

Causes of the French Revolution

The Influence of Enlightenment

French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and tried to put them into practice. For example, they demanded that all French subjects be free and equal under the law.

The Political Crisis

In France, the Estates General brought together representatives of the realm to advise the king on important issues, such as tax increases. Both the clergy (1st Estate) and nobility (2nd Estate) had 300 representatives and one vote in the Estates General. The middle class and peasantry (3rd Estate) had 600 representatives and only one vote.

King Louis XVI governed France as an absolute monarch and opposed meetings of the Estates General. For that reason, the Estates of the... Continue reading "Causes of the French Revolution: A Deep Dive" »

Versailles Treaty vs. Marshall Plan: Economic Outcomes

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, aimed to punish Germany for its role in World War I. The treaty imposed harsh reparations on Germany, totaling 6.6 billion pounds. Germany also lost significant territories, colonies, and its military forces. This punitive approach fostered resentment and economic instability in Germany.

Marshall Plan (1947)

In contrast, the Marshall Plan, launched in June 1947, focused on cooperation and economic recovery in post-WWII Europe. The United States provided $17 billion in aid to European nations, including those devastated by the war. The plan aimed to help Western Europe rebuild its infrastructure, revive agriculture and... Continue reading "Versailles Treaty vs. Marshall Plan: A Comparative Analysis" »

Axis Advantages at the Start of WWII in Europe and Asia

At the beginning of World War II, the Axis powers, primarily Germany and Japan, held significant advantages in Europe and Asia. These advantages stemmed from a combination of military preparedness, technological advancements, and strategic positioning.

Germany's Military Advantage

Germany's advantage lay in its significantly larger armed forces, equipped with modern weapons and employing modern tactics. Following World War I, European countries, including Britain and the United States, demobilized much of their armed forces throughout the 1920s. However, after Hitler's rise to power in 1933, and in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany began rebuilding its military might.... Continue reading "Axis Advantages and Allied Victory in World War II" »

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was fought among several European powers, principally the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and the Duchy of Savoy, against the Kingdoms of France and Spain and the Electorate of Bavaria, over a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under a single Bourbon monarch. Such an unification would have drastically changed the European balance of power.

Recognition of Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain

It resulted in the recognition of the Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain while requiring him both to renounce any claim to the French throne and to cede much of the European Spanish Crown's possessions.

Background

In 1700,... Continue reading "War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Causes, Consequences, and Impact" »