Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Spanish Restoration Period

Alfonso XII and Maria Cristina

The Restoration began when Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) returned the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne in 1875.

• The conservative politician Cánovas del Castillo convinced Isabel II to abdicate in favor of her son Alfonso.
• This intervention was supported by the middle class and the army.

Key events:

1. Alfonso signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, in which he promised a constitutional government.
2. A military pronunciamiento (led by General Martínez Campos) proclaimed Alfonso king.
3. Alfonso XII died in 1885, before his legitimate son Alfonso XIII was born.
4. His widow, Maria Cristina, served as regent until Alfonso XIII came of age (1885-1902).

The Political System of the Restoration

The political... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration: Politics and Challenges" »

The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1788-1808)

• Charles IV (1788-1808) left power in the hands of Prime Minister Manuel Godoy.
• In 1807, Godoy allied with Napoleon after signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact included an agreement to invade and divide Portugal, an ally of Great Britain. Under this pretext, French troops entered the Peninsula and occupied strategic points, making it clear their intention was also to invade Spain.
• This situation caused the *Mutiny of Aranjuez* (1808), which forced Charles IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
• In May 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were moved to Bayonne, France. There, they abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who yielded the Spanish throne to his brother, Joseph

Social and Political Dynamics in Restoration Spain

The Workers' Movement

The workers’ movement gained strength after the Constitution of 1876 recognized the freedom of association. Anarchism gained support among Catalan factory workers and Andalusian peasants. The socialists founded the trade union UGT in 1888, which was strongest in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Regionalism and Nationalism

Regionalism and nationalism originated as a reaction against the centralist policies of the Restoration.

• Catalan Nationalists: Sought autonomy for Catalonia and demanded Catalan be decreed the official language of Catalonia (Bases of Manresa, 1892).
• Basque Nationalists: Defended their fueros (traditional rights) and traditions.
• Galician Nationalists:

Contrasting Perspectives on International Development

William Easterly

Background

• Born in 1957; PhD in Economics from MIT.
• Professor of Economics at NYU and prominent development economist.
• Author of books critiquing traditional foreign aid approaches, such as "The White Man's Burden" and "The Elusive Quest for Growth."

Key Arguments

• Skeptical of top-down, expert-driven development strategies.
• Emphasizes the importance of local ownership, accountability, and market-based solutions.
• Argues that aid can often be ineffective and even harmful if not implemented properly.

Richard Dowden

Background

• Born in 1949; British journalist and expert on African affairs.
• Executive Director of the Royal African Society.
• Author of "Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles.

The Thirty Years' War: Origins and Escalation

The Thirty Years' War began as an internal revolt within the Holy Roman Empire, pitting Protestant Princes against the new Catholic Emperor, Ferdinand II.

The Spark: Bohemian Revolt

It all started in the Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) when Ferdinand II, a Catholic, was elected king in 1617. He soon began to restrict the religious freedom of the predominantly Protestant population by closing and forbidding the construction of Protestant churches. This made him very unpopular, especially among the Protestant nobles.

The Defenestration of Prague

In 1618, a group of Protestant nobles captured the king's representatives in Prague and threw them out of the palace window! Miraculously, they... Continue reading "The Thirty Years' War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences" »

Colonial Regions of America

• New England: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire
• Middle: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware
• Southern: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia

Freedoms in Colonial America

• Religious Freedom: The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government.
• Political Freedom: The right to express one’s views about public matters and the right to support or oppose public policies.
• Economic Freedom/Opportunity: The right of every human to control his or her own labor and property.
• Social Mobility: A person's ability to move to a different social class (higher, middle, lower).

Timeline of the American Revolution

1754: French and Indian War

Fighting between... Continue reading "American Revolution: Causes and Key Events 1754-1776" »

That-Clauses in English

Different Kinds and Functions of That-Clauses

Different kinds of that-clauses serve different functions in the English language.

Post-Predicate That-Clauses

That-clauses in the post-predicate position are the most common type. These clauses typically report human speech and thoughts.

Example: I think Stuart’s gone a bit mad.

Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by adjectives are less common than those controlled by verbs.

Subject Predicative That-Clauses

When a that-clause serves as a subject predicative to a copular verb, it usually has one of three functions:

1. Describing a problem: Example: The only problem may be that the compound is difficult to remove after use.
2. Presenting reasons, results, or conclusions: Example: Our

Causes:

• Root Causes:

  • Socio-economic imbalance
  • Privileged social groups opposed the Republicans' reforms
  • Workers' disillusionment at the slowness of Republican reforms
  • Tradition of army intervention

• Immediate Causes:

  • Political violence
  • Deterioration of public order
  • Coup led by Sanjurjo, Mola, Franco, Godet, Queipo de Llano

Supporters:

• In Favor of the Coup:
  • Anti-Republicans
  • Falangists
  • Monarchists
  • Landowners
  • Church
  • Part of the army
  • Traditionalists
• Against the Coup:
  • Part of the military
  • National Police
  • Assault Guard
  • Working class
  • Part of the middle class

International Intervention:

• France and UK remained neutral
• No intervention, no help
• Non-Intervention Committee
• USSR sent weapons and money to the Communist Party
• International Brigades to fight for democracy
• Germany and Italy

The Crusades: Expansion of Christianity in the Middle Ages

The Call to Arms

The expansion of Christianity during the Middle Ages extended beyond Europe to the eastern Mediterranean through a series of religious wars known as the Crusades. Occurring between the late 11th and early 13th centuries, these wars were sponsored by the papacy with the primary goal of reclaiming Jerusalem, the holy city, from Muslim control. In the 11th century, the papacy had compelling reasons to initiate an expedition against Muslims in the East. Such an endeavor would solidify the pope's claim as the leader of Christian society in the West. Furthermore, a significant theological rift had divided the Greek Church of Byzantium and the Roman Church of the West in 1054.... Continue reading "The Crusades: A Medieval Religious and Political Movement" »

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605

King James I faced pressure from the Protestant elite, leading him to renege on promises made to Catholics. Frustrated by persecution, they sought to establish a Catholic monarch, resulting in the Gunpowder Plot. This plot aimed to assassinate the King by detonating explosives in the English Parliament. The plot was foiled by the discovery of the Monteagle Letter, which warned of the impending danger. The conspirators were subsequently tortured, confessed, and executed, worsening the situation for Catholics.

Charles I and the English Civil Wars

James I died in 1625, succeeded by his son, Charles I. In 1641, Irish Catholics revolted, causing panic in England. Tensions between Charles and Parliament escalated over financial... Continue reading "Gunpowder Plot and English Civil Wars: Causes and Consequences" »