Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Cold War Defined

The Cold War was a period of constant tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, primarily from 1946 to 1949 (though the era extended much longer). Each superpower aimed to demonstrate and increase its own power, while simultaneously limiting or reducing the influence of the other. Americans and Soviets wanted to avoid a direct military confrontation, which could have led to a nuclear war.

Origins of the Conflict

The United States and the Soviet Union failed to agree on many things related to the organization of the world after World War II. Each wanted to impose their own ideas about foreign policy. The USSR represented a communist dictatorship, while the USA was a democracy that supported capitalism.

Key Early

The Catholic Monarchs: Foundations of Spanish Power

Foreign Policy Achievements

• Established alliances with other European kingdoms, such as the Holy Roman Empire, controlled by the Habsburg dynasty.
• Carefully planned matrimonial policies, marrying their sons and daughters to the princes and princesses of Portugal, the Habsburg Empire, and England.
• Conquered land in North Africa.
• Recovered the Kingdom of Naples after the war against France.
• Significant geographical expeditions led to the discovery of America in 1492.

Habsburg Spain: A Golden Age and Its Challenges

Key Monarchs of the 16th Century

The 16th century in Spain saw the reign of the Habsburg dynasty monarchs: Carlos I (son of Felipe I and Juana I) and Felipe II.

Carlos I (Charles V): Emperor

World War I: 1914

• June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, prince to the Austria-Hungary throne, is assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian named Gavrilo Princip.
• July 23: Austria-Hungary makes demands on Serbia for retribution. Serbia does not meet demands.
• July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia begins mobilizing its troops.
• August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.
• August 3: Germany declares war on France as part of the Schlieffen Plan.
• August 4: Germany invades Belgium. Britain declares war on Germany.
• August 23 to 30: The Battle of Tannenberg is fought between Germany and Russia. The Germans defeat the Russian Second Army.
• September 5 to 12: The advancing German army is stopped before Paris by the British and French at the First Battle

             3. THE THIRTY YEARS WAR

Causes:  

1. This war was caused because of the cinflict between Catholics and protestants in the Holy Roman Empire
2. Gradually it developed into a more general conflict for Europe political dominance

The main problems of the war and the different participants:

1. Protestants uprising in Bohemia: Some protestants nobles expelled the Cathilics and appointed a protestant kink in Bohemia. The emperor who was king of Bohemia too fought against them.
2. Two sides were formed: 1. The emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the king os Spain and Portugal 2. The protestants allied with German but they were defeated
3. Swedish participation: 1. After the Surrunder of Breda the German Catholic took the protestants

(h2)Which is the only directly elected organ of the EU? When were the last elections? And the next ones? (h3)The EU parliament, elected every 5 years, 2014 last elections, 2019 next(h2)Which four institutions of the EU play the most important role in the decision-making process? (h3)The European Parliament, European Commission, European Council and the Council of the European Union (Ministers)(h2)What does art. 5 of the Washington Treaty outline? When was it invoked in the past? When could it be invoked in the future? (h3)Art. 5 of Washington Treaty outlines the alliance of members when it comes to defense: The principle of collective security; It was invoked after 9/11. The Washington Treaty is the founding Treaty of NATO. NATO has taken collective... Continue reading "Key Institutions and Treaties in International Relations" »

Long-Term Causes of World War I (WWI)

1. Militarism: The build-up of armed forces and the preparation for war.

   Example: Germany significantly increased her armed forces, ostensibly to defend herself against other European countries.

2. Alliances: Agreements between countries to defend or fight together.

   Example: Many European countries made agreements or promises to help each other if a third country invaded them.

3. Imperialism: The belief of a country in building up an empire and controlling less powerful nations.

   Example: Following unification, Germany sought to expand her Empire and global influence.

4. Nationalism: Intense pride in one's country, often leading people to desire self-governance or strong national defense.

   Example: Many countries in Europe were

Joseph Addison (1672–1719) from The Spectator, N 69 (Published in 1711)

The Royal Exchange

In the periodical The Spectator No. 69, Joseph Addison creates a persona that reveals a new, diverse society of merchants who established the Royal Exchange. These merchants rivaled the powers of Parliament and past Monarchies over the British domains.

The Royal Exchange, located in the heart of the City (London's financial district), was not only a hub for business but also a center for eighteenth-century essays, poetry, letters, and opinions, originally edited by Addison and Steele.

It stands as a symbol of globalisation, highlighting the “increasing importance of the international commerce to the British economy.” Addison believed the world seemed... Continue reading "Joseph Addison and the Royal Exchange: 18th-Century Commerce" »

Bismarck's Alliance System

After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck's goal was to isolate France to prevent them from recapturing Alsace and Lorraine. To achieve this, he created an intricate alliance system:

• League of the Three Emperors between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia (1873 and 1881). Russia would not help France, and Austria-Hungary would not support England.
• Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (1882). It was renewed until 1914. The goal was to isolate France and ensure Italy's neutrality in case of war between Austria and Russia.
• Mediterranean Agreements (1887) with Great Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Spain to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean.
• Reinsurance Treaty (1887) between Russia and

The History of Fascism in Italy

The Birth of Italian Fascism

Italy participated in the later stages of World War I on the side of the Allies. Following the war, economic and social conditions began deteriorating rapidly starting in 1919. This instability led to the rise of a new political movement centered around **Benito Mussolini**. In 1919, he founded the **Fascist Party**. Mussolini aimed to emulate the power and glory of ancient Rome and attracted followers who shared a dislike of the current political situation.

Mussolini was supported by paramilitary formations, notably the *Squadri di combattimento* and the *Camicie Nere* (or **Black Shirts**). These volunteer battalions dressed alike and aggressively pushed for political change, often... Continue reading "Benito Mussolini and the Rise of Italian Fascism" »