Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Why Was There a Revolution in Russia?

• Autocratic Empire: The Tsar held absolute power, supported by a loyal bureaucracy, a powerful army, and the Orthodox Church, which served as an important ideological pillar of the regime.
• Feudal Agriculture and Industry: Agriculture was controlled by a wealthy aristocracy, leaving the majority of peasants in miserable conditions with personal servitude still intact. Industry relied on foreign capital, creating a large industrial proletariat with very low wages, leading to extreme social inequality.
• Rise of Opposition: Opposition to Tsarism grew among peasants (anarchists). Marxist ideas spread among industrial workers, leading to the formation of a party led by Lenin, which eventually split into two wings:

What Was Chartism?

Chartism was the second stage of the labor movement. It consisted of participation in politics to improve workers' lives. Workers wrote a document called the People's Charter, which included some vindications such as:

• Male universal suffrage
• Yearly elections
• Secret ballots
• Wages for worker politicians

This movement happened between 1838 and 1848 but it failed as their vindications were not accepted and the protests became too radical. However, the revolutions of 1848 did not spread to the UK, as the government agreed to improve the working conditions of women and children.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the first and main thinkers of socialism.

Class Struggle

Class struggle is the fight between a... Continue reading "A History of Labor Movements and Imperialism" »

Key Figures and Events of World War I

• Archduke Ferdinand: The person whose assassination led to the start of World War I.
• Neutral Countries: Nations that maintained neutrality throughout World War I.
• Britain: The country that wanted to maintain its naval influence at the beginning of WWI.
• Triple Alliance: A pre-WWI alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
• Woodrow Wilson: The President who led the creation of the League of Nations.
• Militarism: A WWI cause that led countries to build more and more weapons.
• Ottoman Empire: The southeastern empire that disappeared after WWI.
• Finland: A country that became independent after the Treaty of Versailles.
• United States: A major power that entered WWI in 1917.
• Kaiser Wilhelm II: The leader of Germany

Long-Term Causes of World War II

1. The Treaty of Versailles: In Germany, people resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to destroy. He broke its conditions, firstly by rebuilding Germany's armed forces. Then, in 1936, he reoccupied the Rhineland, an important industrial region that had been made a demilitarized zone by the treaty.

2. The Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created to keep the peace, but it was unable to prevent the Second World War. In general, the organization failed because it could not enforce treaties or impose its decisions.

3. Expansionism: Authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan felt that they needed to expand the territory under their control in order to acquire... Continue reading "World War II: Origins, Turning Points, and Conclusion" »

19th Century Spanish Politics

The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)

Absolutist Phase (1814-1820)

Fernando VII dismissed the Cortes, abolished the 1812 Constitution, and re-established absolute monarchy.

Liberal Phase (1820-1823)

The Riego and Quiroga military coup forced the king to reinstate the 1812 Constitution and suppressed freedoms.

Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Aided by the French army (the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis"), Fernando VII defeated the liberals and reinstated absolutism.

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

A liberal constitutional monarchy was established with shared sovereignty, support from liberal political parties, constitutions, and military participation.

The Regency Period

Regencies of María Cristina Bourbon and General Espartero.... Continue reading "19th Century Spanish Politics: From Absolutism to Democracy" »

National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)

• Finally, the king agreed to the Third Estate demands. A new Constituent Assembly was formed to write a constitution.
• News that troops were being sent to Versailles led to a riot in Paris on 14 July 1789, in which people attacked the fortress and prison of the Bastille in order to seize weapons and defend their representatives.
• In the days following the storming of the Bastille, rioting continued in other cities and in the countryside, where peasants attacked the homes of the nobility, burned their archives and refused to pay feudal duties.
• The first orders approved were to abolish feudalism and nationalise the Church’s property.
• Furthermore, they approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

The Spanish-American War and the 1898 Crisis

Before 1898, Cuba demanded autonomy from the central government. Although there were insurrections, General Valeriano Weyler crushed the rebellion with cruelty. The United States began to support the Cuban rebels. The American battleship, USS Maine, exploded mysteriously in Havana harbor; Americans blamed the Spanish for the explosion and declared war on Spain.

The Treaty of Paris and the Colonial Loss

The Spanish-American War took place in both the Pacific and Atlantic. Spain was forced to surrender due to the superiority of the American army. Under the Treaty of Paris (1898), Spain ceded its possessions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Consequently, Spain lost its overseas possessions and... Continue reading "Spanish History: From the 1898 Disaster to the Republic" »

Shared Responsibility for World War I

It is true that not all the blame for the outbreak of the First World War should fall solely on Germany. Other countries also took actions that, in retrospect, were not successful or contributed to rising tensions.

Precursors to Conflict

The Moroccan Crises

For example, in the Moroccan Crises, Germany was involved but arguably found itself in a difficult position, facing opposition from multiple other powers.

The Italo-Turkish War

In the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), another event preceding the First World War, Germany had no direct involvement in the fighting. Italy took advantage of the situation to attack the Ottoman Empire while European powers had disagreements with Turkey over other issues.

The Balkan Wars

Germany... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Beyond Germany" »

What Was World War II?

World War II, a global armed conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, was a total war in two distinct aspects. Firstly, civilian populations became primary targets and the war's most tragic victims. Secondly, the conflict engulfed all continents, marking it as one of the most brutal and inhumane wars in history.

Driven by Nazi expansionism, World War II represented an ideological struggle. It pitted democracy and socialism against fascism, even sparking civil conflicts within the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied forces—including Britain, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union—fought for liberal democratic principles.

As the largest armed conflict in human history, World War II resulted in unprecedented destruction,... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Impact, and Legacy" »

The Age of Revolution

• 1776-1871
• The American Revolution
• Thirteen British colonies in Eastern North America
• Economy based on agriculture and trade
• Black slaves worked in agriculture
• Britain had the monopoly of trade
• Political tensions: Settlers payed taxes but did not have political representation. Rejection to buy British products. Boston Tea Party: attack against a ship with tea [ outbreak of the Revolutionary War
• The conflict brought political changes: Jefferson wrote the Virginia declaration of Rights. 1776 Declaration of Independence
• The American Revolutionary War: Colonies were supported by France and Spain. Washington victories Britain recognised independence. Treaty of Versailles 1783. 1787 United States Constitution. 1789 Washington first American