Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer who, in 1488, led the first expedition to sail around the southern tip of Africa from the Atlantic Ocean and sight the Indian Ocean.

Prince Henry

Portuguese prince who started a school for sailors and sponsored early voyages of exploration.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498, he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain, and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Dutch East India Company

A company founded by the Dutch in the early... Continue reading "Defining Moments and Personalities in World History" »

The Reign of George I and the Whig Supremacy

During the era of the Early Hanoverians, George I faced significant opposition in Parliament between the Tories and the Whigs. Ultimately, the Whigs became the dominant political force. The first Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole, promoted trade, opposed war and military expenses, and sought to reduce taxes.

This period is considered a Golden Age because political debate extended to an intellectual elite. Politics became subject to the wit and satire of authors like Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift. The liberal philosophy of John Locke and the rise of coffee houses provided new ways to share cultural ideas through periodical pamphlets. During this time, a new religious movement emerged: Methodism (... Continue reading "The Early Hanoverians and the British Golden Age" »

European Union Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP)

Challenges in EU Defense Policy

The realm of defense policy within the European Union is inherently complex and often conflictive due to several critical factors:

1. It is intrinsically linked to national sovereignty, making common decision-making challenging.
2. Not all Member States possess the same military capabilities or resources.
3. There is not always unanimous agreement among Member States regarding the use of force when necessary.
4. Six Member States (Austria, Cyprus, Finland, Ireland, Malta, and Sweden) are not part of NATO, which adds another layer of complexity to coordinated defense efforts.
5. A wide range of opinions exists concerning the United States' role in European security, with some

Why Were Virginia's Frontier Settlers Frustrated With Their Government?

The frontier lacked representation in Virginia's legislature.

What Principles Did the Government of Providence Differ From That of Massachusetts?

Providence differed from Massachusetts in its emphasis on religious tolerance and separation of church and state. Providence also had agreements with Native American tribes and promised religious freedom to its inhabitants.

Social Structure of Southern Societies

Southern society was stratified into three main groups:

1. Small farmers
2. Plantation owners
3. Enslaved Africans

How Was the French Colony in North America Unlike the British Colonies?

The French had friendlier relations with Native Americans than the British and established stronger... Continue reading "A Comparative Study of Early American History: From Colonial Frustrations to National Identity" »

The 17th century. Transformations and conflicts.

1.1.The transformations of the 17th century

• Political transformations: Authoritarian monarchy was substituted by absolute monarchy and the first parliamentary systems emerged.
• Economic transformations: The rise of commerce encouraged financial capitalism and the majority of states imposed mercantilism, a new economic doctrine based on the accumulation of wealth and precious metals.
• Social transformations: The society of the three estates began to rupture due to the rise of the bourgeoisie, who became wealthier through colonial trade.
• Cultural and artistic transformations: The 17th century witnessed the birth of modern science. In terms of art, the Baroque arose in Italy and spread to other European

Electronic Devices

Camcorder

Cordless Phone

Desktop Computer

Digital Camera

DVD Player

Games Console

Handheld Games Console

Hi-Fi

Laptop Computer

Netbook

Mobile Phone

Remote Control

Widescreen Television

Computing

Base Unit

Monitor

Printer

Router

Scanner

Speakers

Home Appliances

Microwave

Mobile Phone

Stereo

Video Recorder

Cooker

Fridge

Cassette Player

Freezer

Hairdryer

Washing Machine

Radio

TV

Technology

Fax Machine

CD-ROM

Disc

Printer

Smart Card

Screen

Vocabulary: Black History

African-American

Black American of African descent

Slaves

People who are owned and forced to work by someone else

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice

Prejudice

An opinion or strong feeling formed without careful thought

Civil Rights

Human rights

Justice

The administration of... Continue reading "Electronic Devices and Black History Vocabulary" »

The 1905 Revolution

In January 1905, industrial workers in St. Petersburg peacefully marched on the Winter Palace, the Tsar's residence, to request improvements in working conditions and political reform. The protesters were brutally suppressed, and the protest became known as "Bloody Sunday."

The 1917 Revolutions

In 1917, a revolution took place in two phases: the liberal-bourgeois revolution in February and the socialist-proletarian revolution in October.

The February Revolution: The Provisional Government

In February 1917, there was a successful revolution of workers in Petrograd (previously called St. Petersburg), supported by soldiers and peasants. They protested the disasters of the war and the shortage of food and demanded Russia's withdrawal... Continue reading "Revolutions and Restorations: A Historical Overview" »

SBQ: United Nations

1. Gulf War (1991)

Background: Tensions between Iraq and Kuwait.

Role of UN

• Swift and unanimous action by the Security Council with cooperation by the US and the Soviet Union.
• UN-sponsored coalition was able to gain widespread international support.

Operation Desert Storm was effective against the Iraqi army.

Effectiveness

• Military operations proved effective against Iraqi forces.
• Diplomatic unity in the Security Council enabled coordinated international action.

2. Somalia (1992-1995)

Background: Local conflicts worsened and led to a state of anarchy.

Role of UN

• Establishment of UNOSOM I and UNITAF to monitor ceasefires and ensure humanitarian assistance.
• Unwillingness of conflicting parties to accept UN mediation and peacekeeping.
• Factions

EU policy involvement varies not just in its extent but also in its nature. The most important aspect of this varying nature is whether policies rely heavily on EU law or are more based on forms of intergovernmental cooperation.

It used to be the case that in those policy areas where the EU exercised significant responsibilities, well-established and effective policy instruments resting on EU law were almost invariably in place. It also used to be the case that where EU policy involvement was very limited, policy instruments tended mostly to be of the voluntary and persuasive kind.

However, over the years these two generalised statements, and especially the first, have become increasingly less accurate as the EU has made use of an increasing

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in France in the 18th century. The most important ideas were:

• Confidence in reason
• Faith in human progress through science
• Criticism of the Old Regime

Old Regime

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social system in Europe from the 15th century to the 18th century. It was characterized by:

• Political: Absolute monarchy
• Economic: An economy based on agriculture
• Social: A stratified society

Salons

Salons were meetings in private homes where intellectuals discussed politics, culture, and other topics. These gatherings contributed to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopaedia

The Encyclopaedia was a 28-volume work that summarized the knowledge of its time and included... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and its Impact: A Comprehensive Guide" »