Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Long-Term Causes of World War II

1. The Treaty of Versailles: In Germany, people resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to destroy. He broke its conditions, firstly by rebuilding Germany's armed forces. Then, in 1936, he reoccupied the Rhineland, an important industrial region that had been made a demilitarized zone by the treaty.

2. The Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created to keep the peace, but it was unable to prevent the Second World War. In general, the organization failed because it could not enforce treaties or impose its decisions.

3. Expansionism: Authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan felt that they needed to expand the territory under their control in order to acquire... Continue reading "World War II: Origins, Turning Points, and Conclusion" »

19th Century Spanish Politics

The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)

Absolutist Phase (1814-1820)

Fernando VII dismissed the Cortes, abolished the 1812 Constitution, and re-established absolute monarchy.

Liberal Phase (1820-1823)

The Riego and Quiroga military coup forced the king to reinstate the 1812 Constitution and suppressed freedoms.

Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Aided by the French army (the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis"), Fernando VII defeated the liberals and reinstated absolutism.

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

A liberal constitutional monarchy was established with shared sovereignty, support from liberal political parties, constitutions, and military participation.

The Regency Period

Regencies of María Cristina Bourbon and General Espartero.... Continue reading "19th Century Spanish Politics: From Absolutism to Democracy" »

National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)

• Finally, the king agreed to the Third Estate demands. A new Constituent Assembly was formed to write a constitution.
• News that troops were being sent to Versailles led to a riot in Paris on 14 July 1789, in which people attacked the fortress and prison of the Bastille in order to seize weapons and defend their representatives.
• In the days following the storming of the Bastille, rioting continued in other cities and in the countryside, where peasants attacked the homes of the nobility, burned their archives and refused to pay feudal duties.
• The first orders approved were to abolish feudalism and nationalise the Church’s property.
• Furthermore, they approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the

The Spanish-American War and the 1898 Crisis

Before 1898, Cuba demanded autonomy from the central government. Although there were insurrections, General Valeriano Weyler crushed the rebellion with cruelty. The United States began to support the Cuban rebels. The American battleship, USS Maine, exploded mysteriously in Havana harbor; Americans blamed the Spanish for the explosion and declared war on Spain.

The Treaty of Paris and the Colonial Loss

The Spanish-American War took place in both the Pacific and Atlantic. Spain was forced to surrender due to the superiority of the American army. Under the Treaty of Paris (1898), Spain ceded its possessions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Consequently, Spain lost its overseas possessions and... Continue reading "Spanish History: From the 1898 Disaster to the Republic" »

Shared Responsibility for World War I

It is true that not all the blame for the outbreak of the First World War should fall solely on Germany. Other countries also took actions that, in retrospect, were not successful or contributed to rising tensions.

Precursors to Conflict

The Moroccan Crises

For example, in the Moroccan Crises, Germany was involved but arguably found itself in a difficult position, facing opposition from multiple other powers.

The Italo-Turkish War

In the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), another event preceding the First World War, Germany had no direct involvement in the fighting. Italy took advantage of the situation to attack the Ottoman Empire while European powers had disagreements with Turkey over other issues.

The Balkan Wars

Germany... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Beyond Germany" »

What Was World War II?

World War II, a global armed conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, was a total war in two distinct aspects. Firstly, civilian populations became primary targets and the war's most tragic victims. Secondly, the conflict engulfed all continents, marking it as one of the most brutal and inhumane wars in history.

Driven by Nazi expansionism, World War II represented an ideological struggle. It pitted democracy and socialism against fascism, even sparking civil conflicts within the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied forces—including Britain, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union—fought for liberal democratic principles.

As the largest armed conflict in human history, World War II resulted in unprecedented destruction,... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Impact, and Legacy" »

The Age of Revolution

• 1776-1871
• The American Revolution
• Thirteen British colonies in Eastern North America
• Economy based on agriculture and trade
• Black slaves worked in agriculture
• Britain had the monopoly of trade
• Political tensions: Settlers payed taxes but did not have political representation. Rejection to buy British products. Boston Tea Party: attack against a ship with tea [ outbreak of the Revolutionary War
• The conflict brought political changes: Jefferson wrote the Virginia declaration of Rights. 1776 Declaration of Independence
• The American Revolutionary War: Colonies were supported by France and Spain. Washington victories Britain recognised independence. Treaty of Versailles 1783. 1787 United States Constitution. 1789 Washington first American

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France.

Domestic Policy

• He consolidated the changes made during the revolution.
• He established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied equality to all citizens and introduced new concepts such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption, state-controlled education, and the protection of private property.

Foreign Policy

• Napoleon transformed France into an empire following his victories over Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
• Great Britain remained undefeated despite the Continental Blockade (Bloqueo Continental) he established. No country allied with or occupied by France was permitted to import British goods.
• He spread the revolutionary principles of liberty and equality across Europe.
• His rule

Will Rogers: The American entertainer who traveled the Far East in 1931 had a unique perspective. He particularly liked Shanghai.

Jan Myrdal: In 1982, Myrdal revisited the Chinese village he reported on in 1962. His observations in Return to a Chinese Village expressed disappointment at the changes and continued support for Mao's program, including the Cultural Revolution.

Fulbright Hearings: U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Vietnam conducted between 1966 and 1971.

Simon Leys: Argued that the Cultural Revolution was not cultural or revolutionary, but an irrational, cruel power struggle replicating old despotism.

Little Red Book: A collection of statements from speeches and writings by Mao Zedong, published from 1964 to about... Continue reading "Key Figures and Events Shaping China-US Relations" »

Latin American Social Hierarchy

1. Peninsulares: People born in Spain. They were at the top of the social hierarchy.

The Revolutions in the Americas

Bonds That Create