Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Biology

Rheumatic Fever

Is a multisystem inflammatory disease that can involve the heart, joints, skin, and brain. The disease develops after a streptococcal infection (A beta-hemolytic – Streptococcus pyogenes) – mostly pharyngitis

Clinical Features

• Occur most often in children
• Develop 2-4 weeks after streptococcal infection
• Fever, malaise, and increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate
• Rheumatic heart disease – pancarditis; inflammation of the entire heart (3 layers)

Pericarditis

Leads to serous effusions

Myocarditis

Leads to cardiac failure

Endocarditis

Leads to valvular damage

• Rheumatic endocarditis – mitral and aortic valves (mostly); the valves become thickened, fibrotic, deformed, & calcification (may)

• Joint involvement – arthralgia, arthritis,

1. Know the functions of the lymphatic system

· Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes and other lymphoid cells that provide defense against infections and foreign substances PRIMARY FUNCTION. Return of excess fluid to bloodstream. Transport of lipids absorbed in digestive tract

2. Know the three subtypes of lymphocytes and what type of immunity each is responsible for

· T cells à Cell-mediated immunity (4+ subtypes)

• Cytotoxic T Cells (T_c) - direct cellular attack
• Helper T Cells (T_H) and Suppressor T Cells (T_S) - regulatory roles
• Memory T Cells.

B Cells à Antibody-mediated immunity

• Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
• Antigen - usually proteins (specific chemical targets)

· NK Cells à Immunological surveillance

3. Know where the three types of lymphocytes

asthma

•Thyroid gland: secretes 2 hormones 

        -thryroxine: stimulates cell metabolism 

        -calcitonin: causes bone calcification

•Páncreas: produces 2 hormones

        -insulin: reduces blood glucose levels

        -glucagon: has the opposite function to insulin 
•Pineal gland: produces the pituitary gland that stimulate hormone

•Parathyroid glands: secrete parathyroid hormone

•Adrenal glands: -cortex: secretes hormones called corticosteroids

                           -medulla: secretes sympathetic neurotransmitors 

•Ovaries: produce 2 types Of hormone:

                -frénale sex hormones or oestrogen 

                -progesterone 

•Testicles: produce male sex hormones or androgens 

Chapter 1

light/ transverse waves, can be refreccted o reflected/ no need of medium , travels in straight directions , the shorter wavelenght the more energy, if the wave is shorter than eyes then is invisible to our eyes 

Chemical evolution: it refers to the processes that created the molecules that make up living things(biomolecules), and then formed structures called protocells (the precursors of the first cells), which exhibited a certain organisation and were separated from the environment by membranes.

Name the stage of cell division in which paired homologous chromosomes get shortened and thickened?

Ans: Pachytene is the stage of cell division in which paired homologous chromosomes get shortened and thickened.

Which structure of animal cell forms the asters of spindle?

Ans: Centrosome is that structure of animal cell which forms the asters of spindle.

Name the cells in which meiosis occurs?

Ans: Meiosis occurs in the reproductive cells or germ cells.

At which stage of meiosis crossing over of genetic material takes place?

Ans: Pachytene is the stage of meiosis in which crossing over of genetic material takes place.

What is Go phase?

Ans: A stage when cell cycle is arrested during interphase is called Go phase.

Name the cell division concerned with

Explain how ATP is made in Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain

Substrate level phosphorylation occurs in glycolysis and the krebs cycle when the intermediate molecules contain

Oxidative phosphorylation can produce between 32-34 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose

NADH and FADH2 transfer electrons to protons in the inner mitochondrial membrane, when this happens, energy is released, the energy is used by the proteins to pump h + ions from the matrix to the intermembrane space

The electrons are passed from the protein to protein in the Etc, as the occurs, energy is released and the proteins use this energy to pump additional h+ from the matrix to the intermembrane space establishing a concentration gradient.

Because of the