Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

These are energetic and structural substances found in many foods that we eat daily. There are two groups:

Simple Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides: They are the simplest ones.
• Disaccharides: They are formed by two monosaccharides joined together.

Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)

They are neither sweet nor crystalline and they are not soluble in water. They include:

• Starch: It is made up of glucose molecules.
• Cellulose: It makes up vegetal fibre and forms the plant cellular wall. It is also made up of glucose molecules.

Inorganic Substances

These are small inorganic substances with variable composition. In solid state, they are structural. In dissolution, they are regulatory and allow our organs to function correctly and intervene in the regulation.... Continue reading "Energetic and Structural Substances in Foods" »

Pituitary

• Location: Head 2 lobes - anterior lobe
• Hormone: growth hormone
• Target organ: Whole body, skeleton
• Function: stimulate the growth

• Location: Head 2 lobes - anterior lobe
• Hormone: Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Target organ: Thyroid
• Function: stimulate production of thyroid hormones

• Location: Head 2 lobes - anterior lobe
• Hormone: Gonadotropes. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Target organ: Ovaries and testes
• Function: action ovaries and testes

• Location: Head 2 lobes - anterior lobe
• Hormone: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Target organ: Adrenal glands
• Function: Stimulate the secretion of adrenal glands

• Location: Head 2 lobes - anterior lobe
• Hormone: Prolactin
• Target organ: breasts
• Function: stimulates breast growth and milk

Ectoparasites: True or False Statements

Test your knowledge on ectoparasites with these statements:

• Ectoparasites do not produce skin lesions. False (Many ectoparasites, like scabies mites, cause significant skin lesions.)
• Skin appendages are infested by ectoparasites. True (This includes hair, sebaceous glands, and sometimes nails.)
• Infestation by head and body lice refers to Bediculosis. False (The correct term is Pediculosis.)
• Hair and sebaceous glands are parts that can be affected by ectoparasites. True
• Ectoparasites are considered organisms. True (They are living organisms that live on the exterior of a host.)
• Many reports of ectoparasitic diseases have disappeared. False (Ectoparasitic diseases remain prevalent globally.)
• Scabies are not found

The Significance of Meiosis

Why Meiosis?

 Meiosis generates diversity by ensuring that the gametes it gives rise to will differ genetically from one another.

 Meiosis is unlike regular cell division, or mitosis, which produces daughter cells that are exact genetic copies of parent cells.

 Evolution is spurred on by differences among offspring, and meiosis and sexual reproduction ensure such differences.

 By contrast, asexual reproduction, as is seen in bacteria and other organisms, produces organisms that are exact genetic copies, or clones, of the parental organism.

 The genetic diversity brought about by Meiosis and sexual reproduction is responsible, to a significant extent, for the great diversity of lifeforms seen in the living... Continue reading "Understanding Meiosis: The Process of Genetic Diversity and Reproduction" »

Abiotic Levels of Organization

Subatomic Level

Composed of different particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) that form atoms.

Atomic Level

Consists of atoms of the chemical elements from which living matter is formed. The different types of atoms are represented in the periodic table according to their number of protons within their nucleus. For example:

• Nitrogen
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Phosphorus
• Sulfur

Molecular Level

Molecules are formed by the joining of two or more atoms. This level includes both inorganic and organic molecules.

Inorganic Molecules

• Water
• Gases
• Mineral salts

Organic Molecules

• Simple sugars
• Lipids
• Nucleotides
• Amino acids

Macromolecular Level

Macromolecules are formed when molecules join together. For example, proteins are formed when amino... Continue reading "Biological Organization: Levels of Life" »

1.Which of the Following processes is endergonic?

the Synthesis of glucose from carbon dioxide and water

2.What is the Basic difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions?

Exergonic Reactions release energy; endergonic reactions absorb it.

3.Which of the Following examples is classified as a metabolic pathway?

protein Synthesis

4.When a cell Uses chemical energy to perform work, it couples a(n) ________ reaction with A(n) ________ reaction.

exergonic . . . Endergonic

5.The transfer Of a phosphate group to a molecule or compound is called

phosphorylation.

6.Anything that Prevents ATP formation will most likely

result in Cell death.

7.The energy Required to initiate an exergonic reaction is called

the energy Of activation.

8.Most of a Cell's enzymes

Vineyard Soil

The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat and/or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes.

Annual Cycle of a Vineyard

The annual cycle of a vineyard includes pruning, cutting, trellising maintenance, anchoring, budburst, ploughing down, de-budding, suckering, flowering, first trimming, first leaf thinning, green harvesting, 2 leaf thinning,... Continue reading "Vineyard Soil and Its Importance for Grapevine Growth" »

1. Who Discovered the Genetic Material?

Frederick Griffith

2. When Was the Genetic Material Discovered?

1928

3. What Did Frederick Griffith Do With His Major Experiment?

He studied two strains of the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae which causes pneumonia. He found that one strain could be transformed, or changed into the other form.

4. What Did Avery and Colleagues Identify?

They identified the molecule that transformed the R strain of bacteria into the S strain.

5. What Did Hershey and Chase Publish in 1952?

They published results of experiments that provided definitive evidence that DNA was the transforming factor.

6. How Does a Virus Replicate?

Viruses cannot replicate themselves; they must inject their genetic material into a living cell to reproduce.... Continue reading "The Structure and Function of DNA: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Understanding the Heart's Anatomy

The heart is the pump which circulates the blood throughout the body. It is approximately the size of a person's fist and is located in the chest, slightly left of center.

Myocardium: The Heart's Muscular Walls

The myocardium refers to the muscular walls that make up the heart, essential for its pumping action.

The Heartbeat and Cardiac Cycle

The heartbeat refers to the rhythmic sounds that the heart makes as it pumps blood. This rhythm can also be observed by feeling the arterial pulse. The left and right halves of the heart function as synchronized pumps, working simultaneously.

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events that occurs during one complete heartbeat. It consists of... Continue reading "The Human Heart: Anatomy, Function, and Blood Circulation" »

blood circulation: closed: blood always circulates through the blood vessels and never leaves them. double: blood must flow through the heart twice to complete a circuit. oxygenated and deoxygenated blood never mix. they circulate through different circuits. systematic and pulmonary circuits: VI>CU>AD> VD> PUL>AI