Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Spanish

Satellite-framed vs Verb-framed Languages

In English or German, most motion verbs can express both movement and manner. They conflate manner in the verb meaning, but when they have to express direction of movement they use satellites or prepositions — satellite-framed languages. In Spanish and other Romance languages, motion verbs tend to conflate path (subir, bajar, salir) while manner must be expressed as an independent element, as an adverbial or gerundive (cojeando, de puntillas) — verb-framed languages.

Translation Approaches: Bottom-Up and Top-Down

Bottom-up approach analysis: literal translation. Top-down: from text level to word.

Lexical Fixedness and Pragmatic Units

Clear-cut problem: different degrees of fixedness and idiomaticity... Continue reading "Motion Verbs, Compound Translation, Dialogue Punctuation" »

Relative Clauses

Types of Relative Clauses

Specifying Relative Clauses

These clauses provide essential information and are not separated by commas. They identify the specific noun or pronoun being referred to. Without the relative clause, the sentence would be incomplete and lack clarity.

Example:

Incorrect: I don't like stories. They have unhappy endings.

Correct: I don't like stories which have unhappy endings.

Explanatory Relative Clauses

These clauses provide additional information that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They are set off by commas or a comma and a full stop. They never use the relative pronoun "that."

Example:

Incorrect: Mrs. Morgan is an English teacher. His son is in our class.

Correct: Mrs. Morgan, whose son is in

Core Definitions in Language and Culture

English Terminology

Translate

To express the meaning of speech or writing in a different language.

Translation

The process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language.

Language

The system of communication in speech and writing that is used by people of a particular country or area.

Culture

The customs and beliefs, art, way of life, and social organization of a particular country or group.

Code

A system of words, letters, numbers, or symbols that represent a message or record information secretly or in shorter form.

Assertion

A statement saying that you strongly believe something to be true.

Sentence

A set of words expressing a statement, a question, or an order, usually containing a subject

Common English Idioms & Expressions

• Hair-raising: escalofriante, aterrador (terrifying, frightening)
• Spine-chilling: escalofriante (terrifying, frightening)
• To face up to something: hacer frente a algo (to confront something)
• Hard to stomach: difícil de digerir, difícil de aceptar (difficult to accept/tolerate)
• Turn your back on something: dar la espalda a algo (to abandon or ignore something)
• Thin-skinned: sensible, susceptible (easily offended)
• Pain in the neck: un incordio, un fastidio (an annoying person or thing)
• Makes my blood boil: me hierve la sangre (makes me very angry)
• Get butterflies in my stomach: tener mariposas en el estómago (to feel nervous or excited)

Emotional & Situational Idioms

• Down in the dumps: estar deprimido (feeling

E-commerce Gaining Traction

For a country such as Spain, where e-commerce is not as widespread as it is in the United Kingdom or France, it comes as proof that this alternative is beginning to take hold. In London or Paris, for example, an increase of 30% in online shopping is expected with respect to last year.

Online Toy Sales Surge

In the case of toys, the online channel is safe and curiosity-proof. Toy sales through this channel increased by 60% last year and it is expected that this year they will continue to rise. Deloitte's Christmas thermometer confirms this tendency: 25% of the sales budget during these dates will be spent through online channels, which is 10% more than last year.

Advantages of Online Shopping

There is a series of factors... Continue reading "The Rise of E-commerce in Spain" »

Essential Spanish Vocabulary and English Collocations

Music and Concert Terminology

Escenario

stage

Batería

drum set

Guitarra

guitar

Bajo

bass

Traste

fret

Baqueta

drumstick

Púa

pick

Lista de canciones

setlist

Teclado

keyboard

Altavoz

speaker

Público

crowd

Pista

floor

Entrada de pista

floor seats

Reventa

scalped

Agotar

sold out

Consecutivas

in a row

Arriba del todo

nosebleed

Telonero

opening act

Calmarse

calm down

Hoy en día

nowadays

Cartel

lineup

Cantante

lead singer

Tirarse desde el escenario

stage dives

Aplastar

crushed

Parte delantera

pit

Fans

groupies

Cabeza de cartel

headlining

Sound, Acoustics, and Listening Phrases

Hazme caso

listen to me

Auriculares

headphones

No me molestes

don't bother me

Suena bien

it sounds good

Áspero

raspy

Amortiguado

muffled

Chillido

screech

Murmullo

murmur

Ensordecedor

deafening

Chirriante

squeaky

Bajos

bass

Agudos

treble

Silbido

hissing

Rugir

growling

Sonido

Reported Speech: Tense Changes and Rules

When using reported speech, verb tenses typically shift backward. Here is a breakdown of the transformations:

• Cooperates becomes cooperated
• Is cooperating becomes was cooperating
• Cooperated becomes had cooperated
• Was cooperating becomes had been cooperating
• Has cooperated becomes had cooperated
• Has been cooperating becomes had been cooperating
• Had cooperated remains had cooperated
• Had been cooperating remains had been cooperating
• Will cooperate becomes would cooperate
• Can becomes could
• May becomes might
• Have to becomes had to

Changes in Time and Place Expressions

• Now becomes then
• Today becomes that day
• Tonight becomes that night
• Yesterday becomes the previous day
• Here becomes there
• This becomes that
• These becomes those

Examples

Defining the Entrepreneur and the Mercantile Society

Case 2: Mercantile Society (Sociedad Mercantil)

A mercantile society involves habitual commercial activity. Note that while standard commercial entities operate with a profit motive, the original text suggests a specific context that may operate without a profit motive (sin ánimo de lucro).

The Entrepreneur (Empresario)

• Individual Entrepreneur (Persona Física): A natural person.
• Collective Entrepreneur (Persona Jurídica): A legal entity established upon registration in the Mercantile Registry (Registro Mercantil) via a public deed (escritura pública) certified by a notary.

The Company (Empresa)

The company is the economic organization that allows the entrepreneur to operate in the commercial... Continue reading "Spanish Business Entities: Liability, Capital, and Company Types" »

Essential English Vocabulary

Topic 1: Clothing & Accessories

Bracelet, cardigan, earrings, flip-flops, hair band, high heels, leggings, make-up, necklace, ring, sandals, sunglasses, tracksuit bottoms, tracksuit top, trainers, watch.

Topic 2: Places & Adjectives

Block of flats, bridge, building, car park, cottage, factory, farm, field, hill, housing estate, lake, motorway, pavement, river, village, wood.

Funny - hilarious / sad - miserable / hungry - starving / bad - awful / interesting - fascinating / frightening - terrifying / small - tiny / surprised - astonished / ugly - hideous.

Topic 3: Everyday Items

Bedroom, waiting room, credit card, Christmas card, desktop, laptop, headache, headphones, sun cream, sunglasses, wedding dress, wedding... Continue reading "Essential English Vocabulary: Expand Your Word Power" »

English Vocabulary and Grammar Notes

Question Words and Time Expressions

• Why: Porque
• Where: Donde
• Who: Quien
• What: Que, cual
• What time: A que hora
• What colour: De que color
• Whose: De quien
• How: Como
• How many: Cuantos
• How much: Cuantos
• How long: Cuanto tiempo
• How far: A que distancia
• How old: Que edad

Time References

• Now: At the moment
• Today: That day
• Tomorrow: The following day
• Yesterday: The previous day
• Next week: The following week
• Last week: The previous week
• Tonight: That night
• Ago: Before
• Here: There
• This: That
• These: Those

Modal Verbs and Auxiliary Usage

• May / Might: Maybe, perhaps, it's possible, I don't know if (also used with the participle).
• Could: Was able to, knew, managed.
• Must / Have to: It is your duty, it's compulsory/obligatory, oblige to.
• Mustn't / Can'