Relative Clauses and Causative Structures

Relative Clauses

Types of Relative Clauses

Specifying Relative Clauses

These clauses provide essential information and are not separated by commas. They identify the specific noun or pronoun being referred to. Without the relative clause, the sentence would be incomplete and lack clarity.

Example:

Incorrect: I don't like stories. They have unhappy endings.

Correct: I don't like stories which have unhappy endings.

Explanatory Relative Clauses

These clauses provide additional information that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They are set off by commas or a comma and a full stop. They never use the relative pronoun "that."

Example:

Incorrect: Mrs. Morgan is an English teacher. His son is in our class.

Correct: Mrs. Morgan, whose son is in our class, is an English teacher.

Relative Pronouns

• Who: Used for people
• Which: Used for animals or things
• When: Used for time
• Where: Used for places
• Whose: Used for possession

Causative Structures

Causative structures are used to express that someone or something causes an action to be done by someone else.

Forming Causative Structures

• Subject + To Have/Get + Object + Past Participle + Complement: This structure is used when the subject arranges for someone else to do something.

Example: I am having my house painted now. (Someone else is painting my house for me.)

• Subject + Verb + Complement + Complement: This structure is used when the subject performs the action themselves.

Example: I cut my hair. (I cut my own hair.)

• Subject + To + Object + Verb + Complement: This structure is used when the subject has someone else do something for them.

Example: I had/got my hair cut. (Someone else cut my hair for me.)

Direct and Reported Speech

Direct speech is the exact words someone said, while reported speech is a way of reporting what someone said without using their exact words.

Reporting Verbs with Tense Changes

• Simple Present: "I speak English." → He said he spoke English.
• Present Continuous: "I am speaking English." → He said he was speaking English.
• Present Perfect: "I have spoken English." → He said he had spoken English.
• Simple Past: "I spoke English." → He said he had spoken English.
• Past Perfect: "I had spoken English." → He said he had spoken English.
• Future: "I will speak English." → He said he would speak English.

Other Changes in Reported Speech

• Here → There
• Today → That day
• Now → Then
• Tomorrow → The next day/The following day
• Yesterday → The previous day/The day before
• Ago → Before
• Next (year, week, etc.) → The following (year, week, etc.)
• A (year, etc.) ago → The previous (year, etc.)
• This → That
• These → Those

Food Vocabulary

Cooking Methods: Baked, boiled, fried, grilled, roasted

Food Types: Fresh, frozen, home-made, low-fat, organic, vegetarian

Meal Courses: Appetizer, main course, side dish, dessert

Taste and Texture: Delicious, bland, spicy, tender, tough

Other: National dish, ready-cooked meals, staple diet, takeaway food