Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Spanish

Reported Speech: Direct vs. Indirect Style

Direct Style (enclosed in quotation marks) vs. Indirect Style (reported by us at a later time).

Verb Tense Changes in Reported Speech

• Direct: “I write a letter” (Present Simple)
  Indirect: He said he wrote a letter (Past Simple)
• Direct: “I am writing a letter” (Present Continuous)
  Indirect: She said she was writing a letter (Past Continuous)
• Direct: “I have written a letter” (Present Perfect)
  Indirect: He said he had written a letter (Past Perfect)
• Direct: “I wrote a letter” (Past Simple)
  Indirect: She said she had written a letter (Past Perfect)
• Direct: “I was writing a letter” (Past Continuous)
  Indirect: He said he had been writing a letter (Past Perfect Continuous)
• Direct: “I’ll write

Present Perfect and Adverbs

The Present Perfect uses an auxiliary verb and a past participle.

• Ever: Used in questions.
• Never: Used in negative sentences.
• Just: Used for recently completed actions.
• Already: Used for actions completed before expected.
• Still: Used for actions that do not change.
• Yet: Used at the end of a sentence.

Adjectives and Adverbs

• So: Used with adjectives and adverbs (e.g., so tall).
• Such: Used with noun phrases (e.g., such a person).
• Too: Used for excessive amounts with adjectives (e.g., too fast).
• Enough: Used after adjectives (e.g., good enough).
• Adjective/Adverb pairs: Fast/fast, hard/hard, good/well.

Causative Verbs

• Make: To force someone to do something.
• Let: To permit someone to do something.

Passive Voice

Active: Subject + Verb +... Continue reading "Mastering English Grammar: Key Concepts and Usage" »

Common Irregular Verbs in English

Mastering irregular verbs is a fundamental step in learning English. Below is a comprehensive table featuring the infinitive, past simple, past participle, and Spanish translation for the most frequently used verbs.

Present Simple: Forms and Usage

Form

• Affirmative: Subject + Verb (add -s/-es for third person singular)
• Negative: Subject + do not/don't + base verb / He/She/It + does not/doesn't + base verb
• Interrogative: Do + Subject + base verb? / Does + He/She/It + base verb?

Uses

• Habitual actions (e.g., always, usually, often, hardly ever, seldom, never, twice a week, every month). Example: I have a shower every morning.
• Personal information, facts, and general truths.

Present Continuous: Forms and Usage

Form

• Affirmative: Subject + am/is/are + verb + -ing
• Negative: Subject + am not/isn't/aren't + verb + -ing
• Interrogative: Am/Is/Are + Subject + verb + -ing?

Uses

• Actions happening now or around now.
• Future plans (e.g., now, tomorrow, tonight, this evening, this week,

Understanding Science: Branches, Methods, and Philosophy

Science is one of the most important products of human consciousness. With science, we have been able to understand many of the mysteries of the universe, the world, and human beings themselves. It is also the basis for the transformation and modification of the environment.

Branches of Science

The world of science is broadly categorized into different branches:

• Formal Sciences: These do not have an empirical basis and work with formal entities, such as mathematics or logic. They extract information from existing information.
• Empirical Sciences: In contrast, these sciences use experimentation.
  • Natural Sciences: Refer to phenomena, things, and events in nature, for example, physics, chemistry,

Useful English Phrases for Writing

On the one hand, On the other hand, Although, However, In addition, Also, As well as.

Example Phrases for Movie Reviews

• The movie shows...
• It seems to me a fascinating film.
• You will enjoy it. I recommend it to everyone.

About Me, My Hobbies, and Future Plans

My name is G. I'm 16 years old. I live in Soria. I don't have any brothers. I am an only child.

I'm a very friendly person, and people say I'm quite shy. I enjoy sports and often play badminton after school and at weekends. However, my greatest love is technology, especially computers. When I grow up, I want to be a programmer and invent fun games. Now, in my free time, I hang out with my friends, go to the cinema, or watch TV.

My plans for the future are to study... Continue reading "Useful English Phrases, Personal Introduction, Memorable Event, and Thoughts on TV" »

Vocabulary of Minerals and Metals

Precious metals: silver, gold

Handmade jewelry: Pearl necklace, expensive watch; luxury clothing: fur coat, silk shirt; precious stone: diamonds, emeralds

Body Organs

Large intestine (intestino largo), small intestine (intestino corto), liver (hígado), pancreas (páncreas), lungs (pulmones), kidneys (riñones), bladder (vejiga), heart (corazón), brain (cerebro)

Vocabulary of Animals

A kind of animal or plant species (especies)

The place where an animal usually lives: habitat (hábitat)

Animals that kill other animals: predators (depredador)

An animal that other animals kill to eat: prey (presa)

To look for animals and kill them: hunt (cazar)

In nature, not controlled by people: wild (salvaje)

To keep safe from danger:... Continue reading "Vocabulary of Minerals, Animals, and Verbs" »

Character Profiles

• Hiro: The main character, a Japanese student.
• Akiko: Hiro's ex-girlfriend.
• Shark: An elderly man Hiro meets on a train bound for Berlin.
• Karl Meier: A German man living in Berlin.
• Franz Schubert: A bodyguard.

The Breakup and the Trip

Hiro's girlfriend broke up with him because he had a picture of his dog, Yuki, as his wallpaper. Originally, he was planning a trip to southern Spain with Akiko and several friends and their respective partners.

The Encounter on the Train

Hiro meets a man with gray hair and a gray raincoat, wearing a broad smile with very sharp teeth that remind him of a shark. The man approaches Hiro and asks for permission to sit. During the journey, Hiro and the man inadvertently exchange mobile phones. When Hiro goes... Continue reading "Hiro and the Shark: A Thrilling Berlin Mystery" »