Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Expectancy Theory (VIE)

People’s behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives, and these choices (behaviors) are systematically related to psychological processes (perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes). It emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance, ensuring the rewards are deserved and wanted by recipients.

• Expectancy: Self-efficacy (their estimate of ability to complete the task) refers to the strength of a person’s belief about the degree to which a particular first-level outcome is the result of their actions (factors include confidence, budget, and materials).
• Instrumentality: The connection between job performance and the resulting outcomes. This connection determines the valence of the

Retrospective Epidemiological Studies

Case-Control Studies

Retrospective = effect → cause. Case-control studies identify two existing groups that differ in outcome and compare them based on a supposed causal attribute.

• They work by comparing subjects who have the condition/disease (the cases) with patients who do not have the condition/disease but are otherwise similar (the controls).
• Advantages: relatively inexpensive; can be carried out by small teams or individual researchers; shorter in duration.
• Disadvantage: difficulty obtaining reliable information about an individual’s exposure status over time.
• Example of a successful study: demonstration of the link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer.

Characteristics

• Outcome has already occurred;

Job Interview Preparation Tips

• Predict potential interview questions.
• Research the company thoroughly.
• Understand the specific job requirements.
• Analyze your skills and experience to match company needs.
• Rehearse your interview responses.
• Plan your professional attire.
• Prepare a list of questions to ask the interviewer.

Making a Great First Impression

Focus on your appearance, body language, and how to effectively break the ice.

Talking About Yourself

Interviewers want to determine if you can perform the job and if your personality fits the company culture. Be prepared to answer questions such as:

• Can you tell us something about yourself?
• What did you learn during your time at university?
• What kinds of things do you worry about?
• Would you say you are an ambitious

System Functionality Verification

This document serves to confirm that the system is operating as intended. The following list represents the repeated verification cycles performed to ensure stability:

• Test Cycle 1: System functionality confirmed.
• Test Cycle 2: System functionality confirmed.
• Test Cycle 3: System functionality confirmed.
• Test Cycle 4: System functionality confirmed.
• Test Cycle 5: System functionality confirmed.

Note: The verification process was repeated 82 times to ensure consistent results across all modules.

Language Learning Strategies

2 main groups:

• Direct strategies: Involve use of language (memory, cognitive, compensation)
• Indirect strategies: not directly involve use of language, but support language learning (social, metacognitive, affective)

Memory Strategy

Semantic mapping: connect concepts with key words. Enclose related words in the same field.

Cognitive Strategy

Reasoning deductively, when understanding only a few words of the sentence.

Compensation Strategies

Example: use mime or gestures to describe something without words.

England

Compensation, mime/social strategy, clarify/take risks wisely.

Autonomous Learning

Describes a process in which individuals take the initiative. Diagnose your own learning needs, formulate learning goals, choose and... Continue reading "Effective Language Learning Strategies and Gamification" »

SMART Objectives in Education

What is a SMART Objective?

A SMART objective is a specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound goal set for student learning. Each element is crucial for creating effective learning experiences:

Specific

The objective has to be precise enough to show the learning outcome you want to get with your students.

Measurable

How will you know that your students have achieved the goal? What kind of indicators will I see, hear, or feel by the end of the lesson?

Achievable

The objective can be reached by students taking into consideration time, previous knowledge, and other constraints of the group.

Relevant

The objective has to be meaningful for students and it has to meet, if possible, students’ interests.

Time-Bound

Will... Continue reading "SMART Objectives in Education: A Comprehensive Guide" »

What is Psychology?

Etymology of Psychology

Greek: psyche (soul, spirit)

Greek: logos (study)

Definition of Psychology

Science that studies the behavior of individuals and their mental processes, including internal influences that occur within individuals and in their physical and social environment.

Importance of Psychology

It is important to understand the psychological aspects of oneself and others to adapt more appropriately to the environment, especially during college life and adulthood.

What are Psychological Processes?

Aspects of the psyche that enable people to perform various psychological actions and cognitive functions in daily life.

Perception

The mode in which the body and mind work so that we are aware and realize what is happening in our... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: Core Concepts" »

Biological Foundations of Society

Instinctive determination: Unlike many other animals whose actions are immediate and involuntary, in humans, behavior is learned. This is possible thanks to three factors: permeability (which allows us to be affected by external stimuli and assimilate them), intelligence (which enables us to search for the most adequate solution), and a social body (which retains those responses that have shown to be adaptive).

Long Period of Immaturity

The child is completely helpless and remains so for a long time. Our biological nature makes the company of others a remarkable necessity.

Inexistence of Remarkable Physical Qualities

The human being possesses features that make them physically inferior to other animals in terms... Continue reading "Biological Foundations and the Socialization Process" »

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Social Cognitive Theory is an interpersonal theory that covers determinants of behavior and processes of behavior change. It posits that behavior, cognitive, personal, and environmental factors interact.

Key Concepts:

• Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior is influenced by and influences personal factors and the environment.
• Personal Factors:
  • Outcome Expectancies: Anticipated effects of a behavior (physical, social, self-evaluative).
  • Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability in specific situations (magnitude, strength, generality).
• Environmental Factors: Social and physical conditions.

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)

This theory suggests that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence... Continue reading "Psychological Theories of Health Behavior Change" »

Freud's Economic Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud's economic theory of psychoanalysis posits that psychic energy increases, decreases, moves, or is released and distributed throughout the human psyche, activating its different processes.

Freud's Drive Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud used the term "drive" to refer to instinctual impulses. These drives are characterized by:

• Source: A bodily organ that produces a drive through an active process. Different sources give rise to different impulses. (Unintegrated impulses manifest in adult subjects as perversions).
• Drive Peremptory: An energetic and motor factor of variable intensity that pushes the body toward satisfaction, which the subject cannot avoid. Its character is psychological rather than biological.