Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Defining Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind. The term originates from the Greek words psyche (meaning soul or breath) and logos (meaning the study of something).

• Scientific: Based on observation.
• Behavior: Observable actions.
• Mind: Subjective experiences such as sensations, thoughts, and emotions.

What Psychologists Do

Psychologists generally fall into three main categories: clinical, applied, and research psychologists.

Clinical Psychologists

Their main focus is diagnosing and treating psychological problems. They work in clinics, hospitals, and private practices. They differ from counseling psychologists, who focus on prevention and specific adjustment issues. Psychiatrists are medical doctors specializing in psychological... Continue reading "Psychology Fundamentals: Science of Mind and Behavior" »

Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory

Four Main Factors Influencing Career Choice

• Genetic Influences
• Environmental Conditions and Events
• Learning Experiences
• Task Approach Skills

Foundation of Krumboltz's Career Theory

Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development was based on Social Learning principles.

Parsons's Trait and Factor Theory

Purpose of Parsons's Theory of Occupational Choice

The purpose is to match careers to the talents, skills, and personality of a client.

Role of Assessments in Parsons's Theory

Assessments are necessary to gather the client’s talents, skills, likes, dislikes, and personality. Once this information is gathered, it can be used to help identify jobs or careers for which the client would be a perfect fit.

Ginzberg'

Order of participation of brain structures in sensation and perception: Sensation is the detection of physical stimuli in the environment. Perception is our conscious experience of those stimuli.

Pavlov’s steps of Classical Conditioning: neutral stimulus expects a response because it has become associated with a stimulus that already produces a response (stimuli should be presented close in time in order to work out)

1. Start off with reflexive/natural stimulus response pair ( food→ salvation)

2. Food called unconditioned stimulus, salvation unconditioned response

   (f.Ex:  receives food (UCS) ---> Salivates(UCR))

3. Seeing an experimenter(f.Ex metronome)  will not elicit salivation all by itself
               (f.Ex:... Continue reading "13653 a fire detection system" »

Literal Versus Nonliteral Communication

A: Fancy a whisky?

B: I am a muslim.

B explicitly communicates I AM A FOLLOWER OF THE MUSLIM RELIGION.

B implicitly communicates I DON’T FANCY A WHISKY (BECAUSE IT’S ALCOHOLIC AND MUSLIMS DON’T DRINK ALCOHOL).

The more implicit communication is, the more risky it is. If you say “No, thank you” it’s easier to understand than if you say “I am a muslim”. So... Why engage in implicit communication at all? Needless to say, on many occasions one would not be able to provide the same quality and quantity of information unless one chose an implicit utterance.

Disambiguation

- Retired priest may marry Bruce Springsteen. Senses:

1. A retired priest may perform Bruce’s wedding ceremony
2. A retired priest may

Innermost Regions of the Brain

Innermost regions of the brain are responsible for the basic involuntary functions, while outer regions of the brain are conscious and high-order thinking. The outer layer responsible for these higher functions is called the cortex.

Brain Stem

Base of the brain, it is attached to the spinal cord. The brain stem controls our heartbeat.

Thalamus

Above the brain stem. It receives all the sensory information from our senses (except smell) and sends it to other parts of the brain to process the data.

Cerebellum

Behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement like walking and plays a role in non-verbal learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

Located in the back of the brain. It receives and processes visual information.

Frontal Lobe

General... Continue reading "Understanding the Innermost Regions of the Brain and Its Functions" »

Core Concepts in Social Science

Ontology

Ontology: Vad som existerar och vad det betyder att något existerar (What exists and what it means for something to exist).

• Is the social world fundamentally different from the natural world?
• How do researchers conceptualize what they study?
• Is there an objective reality that exists independently of us, or is it in important respects, subjectively created?

Epistemology

Epistemology: Kunskapsteori, läran om vad man kan veta och hur man kan nå kunskap (Theory of knowledge, the study of what can be known and how to acquire knowledge).

• What type or form of knowledge should we pursue?
• What is legitimate knowledge about the social world?
• How do researchers know what they know?
• What is knowable?

Methodology

Methodology:

T1/2: Public Relations (PR)

What is PR?

PR encompasses the relationships an organization cultivates to establish, promote, and maintain mutual understanding with its public. These relationships foster globalization and international exchanges, aiming to align the organization's objectives with the public interest.

Why is PR Important?

1. Vital for Outreach: PR is crucial for connecting with your target audience.
2. Reputation Management: PR helps build and maintain a positive reputation for your company.
3. Community Building: PR creates allies and advocates within the community.
4. Attracting Talent: PR can improve the quality of student and applicant pools.
5. Demonstrating Impact: PR showcases your organization's impact and results to funding agencies.
6. Enhancing

New Opportunities in Retirement

New Opportunity

For many older Americans—particularly those who are financially secure—retirement is accompanied by a feeling of freedom. In retirement, they have the time to do many of the things they always wanted to do. They also have the chance to try new things. Many people use part of the time in late adulthood to travel. Others take college courses. Still others pursue activities—such as crafts, golf, photography, or gardening—that they may have been interested in for many years.

Some elderly Americans begin a second career, either for pay or as volunteers. In recent years, part-time employment opportunities have increased for senior citizens.

Many volunteer programs provide opportunities for older... Continue reading "Retirement Opportunities and Senior Health" »

Essential Vocabulary List

• Uncanny: Extraordinary; unimaginable; seemingly supernatural.
• Underlying: Basic; fundamental; only noticeable under scrutiny.
• Undermine: To impair; to subvert; to weaken by excavating underneath.
• Underpinning: A system of supports beneath; a foundation or basis.
• Underscore: To underline; to emphasize.
• Underwrite: To sponsor; to subsidize; to insure.
• Unilateral: Involving one side only; done on behalf of one side only; one-sided; not mutual.
• Usury: Lending money at an extremely high rate of interest.
• Vacuous: Empty of content; lacking in ideas or intelligence.
• Vagary: Whim; unpredictable action; wild notion.
• Vanquish: To conquer; to overpower.
• Veneer: Facade; coating; outward appearance.
• Verdant: Covered with green plants; leafy;