Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Social Harmony and Disharmony

In humans, two opposing trends coexist: the inclination to live with and alongside others, but also the confrontation and opposition to others. Both phenomena are due to a rather special characteristic of human beings: in the words of Kant, their unsocial sociability. The human being is essentially sociable, needing and wanting the company and recognition of others; yet, on the other hand, lives in fear of being swallowed, hence the need for individuation. Closely related to this desire is the need for privacy and solitude.

These trends coexist in most societies in a balanced and stable manner. The tendency of every human being to assert individuality and, at times, to oppose others and society at large, contributes... Continue reading "Human Social Dynamics: Harmony, Conflict, and Socialization" »

Understanding Criminal Careers

A criminal career is defined as the sequence of crimes an offender has committed throughout their life. It encompasses a beginning, periods of specialization, and sometimes includes phases of decline or growth, potentially leading to a withdrawal from criminal activity.

Criminal Career vs. Career Criminal

It is important not to confuse the concept of a criminal career with that of a career criminal. A career criminal is an individual who is an expert in professional crime. In contrast, a criminal career merely describes the chronological sequence of crimes committed by a subject over a portion of their life. Criminal careers are characterized by:

• An onset of criminal activity.
• The eventual cessation of this activity.

Definition of Autism

Autism, or pervasive developmental disorder, is a neurodevelopmental condition that emerges within the first three years of life. It impacts normal brain development, specifically affecting social interaction and communication skills.

Causes and Genetic Factors

While the exact causes of autism remain unknown, genetic factors play a significant role. Research indicates that identical twins are much more likely to both be diagnosed with autism compared to other family members.

Behavioral Impairments

Autism affects individuals differently across various intellectual levels. It is characterized by three primary categories of behavioral impairment:

• Impaired social relatedness
• Difficulties with language and communication
• Restricted,

Need for Achievement (nAch)

• nAch = Need for achievement
• Motives of individuals or groups to seek challenging goals.
• Correlation between nAch and success:
  • + nAch → + success
  • (-) nAch → + failure
• Learned at home and at school:
  • High nAch parents → high nAch in children
• Education, independence, self-confidence, self-esteem (people with high nAch features).
• Competitive society — media can perpetuate the value of achievement.

Affiliation Motivation

• A person in need of social relations and to be esteemed by the group.
• Tends to praise group performance when working.
• Enjoys working in groups.
• Does not like work without social relations.
• Influenced by group opinion about them.

Competence Motivation

• Prefers high-quality work done quickly.
• Aims to make things better

The Need for Culture in Human Beings

The closed world of animals contrasts with the open world of human beings. While animals are governed by instincts to solve particular problems within their habitat, humans barely retain any instincts. Humans must invent strategies to solve problems in today's world.

Humans are not born with instincts or culture, but with the ability to acquire them. This is because, during evolution, the pelvis of women became narrower, and the heads of offspring grew increasingly larger. This resulted in offspring being born at an earlier neural stage and therefore, less developed. However, in exchange for instincts at birth, humans have an ability to learn and be educated, to solve their problems with the knowledge they... Continue reading "Human Culture and Socialization: Language and Thought" »

Sociology as a Science

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relations, and the functioning of social structures, groups, institutions, and social actions.

Principles of the Marxist Paradigm

1. Law of Universal Interaction: Everything is interconnected, and society consists of interrelated elements.
2. Law of Contrary Unity: Everything is in constant transformation and conflict, generating permanent investigation into social phenomena within their context.
3. Law of Spiral Development: The new integrates and perfects the old without destroying it, leading to continuous development.

Difficulties in Studying and Delimiting the Object of Sociology

1. Reflexivity: We are both the subject and object of study, making it challenging to maintain objectivity.

Thought: A Comprehensive Exploration

Definition of Thought

Thought is the psychic process by which representations of abstract objects, phenomena, or events of reality are formed in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning.

Key Concepts

• Image: Virtual representations formed by all human beings from conception, relating to the rational, subjective, and inner processes of knowing, understanding, judging, and reasoning about objectives and actions.
• Language: The function of expressing thought in written form for communication and understanding between human beings.
• Thought: A rational, objective, and external psychological phenomenon derived from thinking to solve everyday problems.

The thought process is a means of planning and action to overcome... Continue reading "Understanding Thought Processes and Their Significance" »

Memory: Transformations Over Time

Memory refers to the transformations that occur in information over time. From the multi-store model, it is understood that memory is a complex and active system working with multiple interconnected components.

• Recording Information: Information is perceived and encoded.
• Storing Information: The encoded information is stored using multifunctional matrices selected by the individual.
• Retrieving Information: Information is retrieved from memory based on the store in which it was processed.

Three Systems of Information Fixation

1. Sensory Memory

   Information in sensory memory disappears within approximately one second.

2. Short-Term Memory

   Information in short-term memory fades within approximately 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory

   Information

Psychological Perspectives on Attention

WARNING: From the point of view of psychology, attention has traditionally been seen in two different but related ways.

External Determinants of Attention

External determinants are those that precede the environment and enable the individual to maintain attention to the stimuli that are proposed:

• Power of the stimulus: It is evident that high-intensity sound can attract our attention. The same goes for bright colors with respect to the softest tones.
• Change: Whenever there is a change to adjust our perceptual field, our minds are trapped by the stimuli which alter the stability.
• Size: Advertising uses this principle very effectively.

Types of Attention

• Active and voluntary: Attention is active and voluntary when

A Theory Defined

A theory is a set of hypotheses, assumptions, and data models that relate empirically to a system. Theories allow us to understand interrelationships and make predictions about future development.

Personality Theories Seek Answers

Personality theories attempt to answer fundamental questions:

• What characteristics define people and how are they organized?
• How do genetic and environmental factors interact?
• Why does every person behave differently in a situation?
• How can we explain changes in behavior and the causes of abnormal behavior?

Major Personality Study Approaches

The study of personality is based on different theories:

• Psychodynamic Theories (Freud): Attach great importance to the unconscious and focus on personality functioning,