Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Item 2: Behavioral Concepts

1. Define Learning

Learning is the process by which experience produces a permanent change in knowledge or behavior.

3. Define Key Behavioral Terms

• Punishment: A consequence that, immediately after a behavior, lowers the probability that the conduct is repeated.
• Reinforcement: Defined as an event presented immediately after the occurrence of a behavior that increases the likelihood that the conduct is repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

This means that when presented, it increases the chances for a response to occur again. Example: Giving points for participating in class makes a student repeat participation.

Negative Reinforcement

These are consequences that, when removed from the situation, increase the likelihood that the... Continue reading "Behavior Modification: Learning, Reinforcement, and Punishment Principles" »

Human Development: Progress and Well-being

Human development focuses directly on the progress of life and well-being; it is an evaluation of life. Human development is linked to strengthening specific skills related to the whole range of things a person can be and do in life. This involves the possibility for all people to increase their human potential fully and utilize that capacity in all areas—cultural, economic, and political—that is, in capacity-building.

Human development is about freedom to live as one likes.

Human development has to do with the expression of civil liberties and is associated with the possibility that all individuals are subjects and beneficiaries of development; that is, they are constituted as subjects.

Modifications

Perceived Conflict

Any conflict must be perceived; the degree of perception may reveal alternative solutions. While conflict solutions are theoretically unlimited, they are only possible when the situation is viewed within its proper context.

Conflict Sense

Perceptual processes can create or avoid conflicts through feelings and attitudes. When a conflict affects emotions and becomes personalized, it is defined as Conflict Sense—a phenomenon frequently observed in married couples.

Manifest Conflict

Manifest conflict occurs when both parties recognize the differences that prevent an agreement. When there is a conscious attempt to block the achievement of a counterparty's goals, the behavior is viewed as manifest conflict, which can escalate to verbal... Continue reading "Understanding Interpersonal Conflict: Dynamics and Resolution" »

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the center of the world, in the sense that all other cultures are classified according to their degree of approximation to the mainstream culture. Ethnocentrism has sometimes been presented as a scientific doctrine, as the Nazis attempted to establish rigorous biological criteria to distinguish different races. A graphic illustration of the critique of ethnocentrism is provided by the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss when he says that "The savage is he who calls another savage."

Although ethnocentrism is a critical concept, not all human cultures are comparable because there are significant differences between their cultural traits. While no culture... Continue reading "Ethnocentrism and Cultural Evolution: Understanding Differences" »

Cognitive psychology is a discipline that studies processes such as perception, memory, language, attention, and other processes involved in the handling of information by the subject.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget is known for his genetic theory of cognitive development, which proposes that children actively construct their understanding of the world through interaction.

Intelligence, according to Piaget, is the ability to maintain a constant adaptation of the subject's schemas to the world in which they operate.

Adaptation explains the development process of learning and is divided into two sub-processes:

• Assimilation: Integrating new information or experiences into existing schemas. For example, understanding a new concept

Jerome Bruner: Pedagogy as Assisted Development

Despite a possible translation error, we must analyze and evaluate Jerome Bruner's idea that pedagogy is an "assisted developmental psychology," based on academic discussion and bibliography.

Today, we recognize that Man is not simply an animal that reasons and speaks; he has developed a rational mind that other animals lack. His faculty of thought and the communication of concepts have introduced a completely new mechanism for the fundamental biological process of Evolution. Without this term, we would be unable to discuss human development comprehensively.

The Dual Evolution of Humanity

Thanks to science and research, we now know that man undergoes a Dual Evolution: one biological and the other... Continue reading "Jerome Bruner and the Theory of Assisted Pedagogy" »

Major Stages of Human Development

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes in the human individual from birth through old age. The developmental process is a continuous journey; significant changes in personality and psychological traits occur throughout distinct life stages, including adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Key Theories of Psychological Development

• Sigmund Freud: Studied the evolution of sexuality in children and its impact on personality and social relations. He proposed that children move from primary narcissism to channeling sexual impulses toward others. Genital sexuality develops in two phases: the first from ages 1 to 4-5 (Oedipus complex) and the second during puberty following the latency period.
• Jean Piaget:

Understanding Heterosexuality

Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by sexual attraction, love, or sexual desire for people of the opposite sex. This contrasts with homosexuality and is usually distinguished from bisexuality.

Besides referring to sexual orientation, the term heterosexual also refers to sexual behavior between individuals of the opposite sex. Many animal species (those that engage in sexual reproduction and internal fertilization), including humans, reproduce through heterosexual sex. This is unlike hermaphroditic species, in which all individuals possess both sexes.

Homosexuality

Homosexuality (from the Greek ομος, homo, meaning 'equal', and the Latin sexus, meaning 'sex') is a sexual orientation defined... Continue reading "Understanding Heterosexuality and Related Sexual Practices" »

What is Research?

Research is the intentional search for knowledge or solutions to scientific problems. The scientific method shows the way to journey through that investigation, and the techniques needed provide a way to navigate it. It is characterized by being reflective, systematic, and methodical. It is developed through a process.

Importance of Research

Research becomes important because it helps to solve social problems, build new theories, etc.

Evaluating Research Importance

Here are three criteria for evaluating the potential importance of research:

• Convenience: How convenient is the research?
• Social Relevance: What is its importance to society? Who will benefit from the research results?
• Practical Implications: Does it solve real problems?

Faculties of Psychological Knowledge

Perception

Perception involves capturing external elements through the senses. The mechanism of perception follows this sequence: stimulus, touch, sensations, and brain (linguistic, motor, pathological). Attention focuses on a specific stimulus while diminishing others.

Memory

Memory encompasses capturing, storing, and reproducing information received through the senses or intuition. A memorization technique involves understanding, synthesizing, internalizing, and applying the information.

Imagination

Imagination involves capturing and saving ideas, but also altering and combining them, such as envisioning a giant mountain of gold. Without imagination, there would be neither science nor art.

Intelligence

Intelligence... Continue reading "Understanding Psychological Knowledge, Ethics, and Cognitive Development" »