Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Making of Amends for Wrong or Injury Done - Reparation

Tending to Talk a Great Deal - Loquacious

To Prove to Be False or Erroneous, as an Opinion or Charge - Refutable

Showing Great Attention to Detail, Very Careful and Precise - Meticulous

A Right or Privilege Exclusive to a Particular Individual or Class - Prerogative

A Person New to or Inexperienced in a Field or Situation - Novice

Dangerously High or Steep - Precipitous

The Ability to Make Good Judgements and Quick Decisions, Typically in a Particular Domain - Acumen

Having or Showing a Strong or Unreasoning Desire for Revenge - Vindictive

A Spontaneous or Natural Liking Sympathy for Someone or Something - Affinity

Not Conspicuous or Attracting Attention - Unobtrusive

The Character and Atmosphere... Continue reading "Reparation, Loquacious, Refutable, and More: Vocabulary Words Explained" »

Ethan Frome: The Passive Protagonist

Although the novel’s introductory and concluding passages are told from the narrator’s point of view, the bulk of the novel unfolds from Ethan Frome’s perspective and centers on his actions. Whereas the other characters in the narrative remain opaque, we are allowed access to all of Ethan’s thoughts as his life approaches a crisis. He can be seen as the protagonist of the story.

In spite of the fact that Ethan contemplates an adulterous affair, Wharton renders him a generally sympathetic character by making extreme efforts to depict his wife, Zeena, as an appallingly unsympathetic figure. Even if we don’t condone Ethan’s desire for another woman, we understand his motivations. We never doubt his... Continue reading "Ethan Frome Character Analysis and Literary Themes" »

Coordinated Propositions

• Intercourse: and, or
• Dilemmas: or, or
• Adversity: but, however
• Explanation: that is, or
• Dilemma: because...because, well...well, some...others

Subordinate Clauses

Adjective Clauses

Introduced by: what, who, where, when, how, whose, which.

Noun Clauses

Introduced by: that, if, who, what, where, how, when.

Adverbial Clauses

• Time: then, later, soon, now, today, if, etc.
• Place: here, there, where, far, near, up, down, etc.
• Manner: so, as, as if, following, well, badly, fairly, etc.
• Comparison: as much as, rather than, less than, more than, equal to, greater than, less than, better than, worse than, etc.
• Cause: because, since, as, having been produced, etc.
• Consequence: so that, so, therefore, etc.
• Condition: if, provided that, etc.
• Concession:

Plato's Relationship with Other Authors in Platonic Thought

Undoubtedly, the philosophy of Plato is a crucial point in the history of Western thought. Although Whitehead claimed that the history of philosophy is merely a footnote on Plato's thought, the fact remains that the Western philosophical tradition has either reaffirmed or rejected his ideas in every subsequent thinker.

Hence, attempting to relate Plato's philosophy to other authors can be an endless task. From this perspective, we will link and compare Plato's thought with some of the most representative figures in the Western cultural tradition.

Comparison with Parmenides

First, we consider the philosophy of Parmenides, who, like Plato, relegated the world of the senses to the background.... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Connections to Western Thinkers" »

Context: The Life of René Descartes

Born in The Hague into a noble and wealthy family, Descartes' father was an advisor to the parliament, ensuring he received the best education in European schools. He was a child prodigy who lived through the 17th-century European crisis, which manifested in several key areas:

Socio-Economic Crisis

The rigid class society began to break down as commercial capitalism, driven by colonial and maritime trade, flourished. This fostered the rise of a middle-class business sector that demanded full political and religious freedom.

Political Crisis

The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) involved the major European powers and signaled the decline of the Spanish Empire. This era was defined by a struggle for religious freedom... Continue reading "René Descartes: Rationalism and 17th-Century Philosophy" »

Fundamental Human Rights: Obligations and Categories

Obligation to Respect Rights and Non-Discrimination

States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized herein and to ensure free and full exercise to all persons subject to their jurisdiction, without any discrimination based on:

• Race, color, sex, language, or religion;
• Political or any other opinion;
• National or social origin, property, birth, or other status.

Core Civil and Political Rights

Right to Life

Everyone has the right to respect for his life. This right is protected by law and, in general, from the time of the conception. Nobody can be deprived of life arbitrarily.

Protection of Honor and Dignity

Everyone has the right to respect for his honor and recognition... Continue reading "International Human Rights: Categories, Obligations, and Core Freedoms" »

Key Psychological Terms and Definitions

1. Frustration: Occurs when goal-directed activities are slowed, made difficult, or become impossible.
2. Frustration tolerance: The ability of an individual to deal with frustration without becoming maladjusted or overly upset.
3. Conflict: The necessity of choosing between alternatives.
4. Adjustment mechanisms: Behavioral patterns that help satisfy needs, reduce anxiety, and protect an individual’s self-esteem.
5. Compensation: An attempt to make up for a deficiency in one area by putting forth extra effort and energy in another area.
6. Overcompensation: When a person goes beyond merely balancing their feelings of inadequacy.
7. Identification: An adjustment mechanism involving the process of copying or associating closely

Timeless Moral and Philosophical Quotes

Ethics and Moral Thought

"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

— John Stuart Mill

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure."

— Jeremy Bentham

"Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you."

— Confucius

"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."

— (The Golden Rule)

"Morality is not properly the doctrine of how we should make ourselves happy, but how we should become worthy of happiness."

— Immanuel Kant

Pascal's Wager

"If God does not exist, one will lose nothing by believing in him, while if he does exist, one will lose everything by not

Essential English Vocabulary

Here's a compilation of useful English words and their meanings, categorized for easier learning:

Common Verbs and Adjectives

• Over: Finished
• Complain: Say that you aren't satisfied
• Jumpers: Sweaters
• Down: Sad
• Fades: Become less bright
• Rise: Get up
• Sight: View
• Costumes: Clothes
• Tend: Are more likely
• Flicker: Move quickly
• Amazing: Wonderful
• Displays: Shows
• Dishes: Foods
• Such as: For example
• Truly: Really
• Join in: Do an activity with others
• Turn up: Arrive
• Share out: Divide
• Wet: Humid
• Cross: Angry
• Tough: Hard
• As: Because
• Harbour: Place on the coast...
• Loads: Many
• Scruffy: Dirty
• Crowded: Full
• Perform: Entertain an audience
• Stage: Platform
• Sightseeing: Visiting places
• Soak up: (British) Absorb
• Claim: Say that something is true
• Appeal: Be attractive
• Cater: