Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Utilitarianism - Mill

• Why intentions/duty/inclination don't really matter (for Utilitarianism):

To utilitarians, intentions don't matter because when looking at a situation you need to strip away the intentions so that you can look at the act alone as good or bad

• Explain why happiness/pleasure is the desired goal of morality in Utilitarianism

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human happiness

• The relationship between virtue and disinterestedness

Virtue can still be desired but should be desired disinterestedly (so basically not gaining virtue for your own benefit)

Deontology - Kant

• Principle of volition

A principle that governs any rational will

• Why/how consequences aren't the deciding factor for ethical goodness

Deontology... Continue reading "Comparing Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics, and American Indian Ethics" »

The Shift Towards Organic Alternatives

It wasn't until people realized the harmful practices of food corporations that they began seeking alternatives. This realization sparked a paradigm shift in consumer behavior and attitudes toward genetically modified products. These texts explore this issue, which resonates with the vast majority of the public, from different perspectives.

Organic Food Awareness and Accessibility

The first passage suggests that consumers of naturally processed foods are often unaware of what genetically modified products truly entail. However, it's arguably those who purchase organic food who are most aware of the potential harm in conventional options. This awareness stems not only from concerns about chemicals but also... Continue reading "The Rise of Organic Farming: A Response to Harmful Food Production" »

Care Ethics: Held's Theory

Major Features of Care Ethics

• Attending to Particular Others: Focusing on specific individuals we have responsibilities towards, such as maternalism.
• Recognition of Dependence and Interdependence: Acknowledging that humans rely on others throughout their lives, creating moral obligations.
• Value of Emotion: Emphasizing the importance of emotions like sympathy, empathy, and responsiveness in moral decision-making.

Kinds of Emotions Valued and Rejected

• Valued Emotions: Sympathy, empathy, sensitivity, responsiveness.
• Rejected Emotions: Egoistic feelings, favoritism, aggressive impulses.

Care as Practice and Value

• Care as Practice: Guides us in responding to needs and understanding why we should.
• Care as Virtue: Values caring personalities

Paul Ricoeur: Defining Ethics

Ethics is defined as “aiming at the good life with and for others, in just institutions.”

Utilitarianism: Principles and Logic

Utilitarianism posits that the greatest good for the greatest number of people is the measure of right and wrong.

Core Evaluative Questions

• How much pain does this action produce?
• How much pleasure does this action produce?

Attractive Aspects of Utilitarianism

• It does not require a religious argument to propose a moral theory.
• It is based on a consequentialist assumption: if something is considered wrong, it must be proven.
• One must demonstrate that harm is being caused to others.
• It focuses on increasing the well-being of the majority.

Are all pleasures created equal? No.
Are all pleasures commensurable?

What is Epistemology?

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge and how we understand reality. This document delves into the main questions philosophers have asked about human knowledge, focusing on our two primary cognitive faculties: reason and the senses.

Key Areas of Epistemological Inquiry

• Methods proposed to guarantee rigorous and trustworthy acquisition of knowledge.
• The objective of all knowledge: truth. What is truth, and what criteria have been proposed for identifying it?
• Philosophical theories that question whether human knowledge is limited or limitless.

Cognitive Faculties: Reason and the Senses

Reason and the senses are the two main instruments we use to experience reality. Our senses allow us to be aware of our... Continue reading "Epistemology: Understanding Human Knowledge and Reality" »

Core Ethical Frameworks

This paper examines three primary schools of ethics derived from Aristotle’s Aristotelian Ethics, followed by a critical analysis of potential objections to strengthen my perspective.

The Three Schools of Ethics

• Consequentialism: Asserts that the moral rightness or wrongness of an action depends entirely on its consequences. The Utilitarian perspective defines this through "happiness," characterized as pleasure in the absence of pain.
• Deontology: Focuses on moral rightness determined by conformity to universal rules and principles.
• Virtue Ethics: The most prominent approach, which posits that virtue is primary, rather than focusing solely on what is considered "good" or "right."

Aristotle’s Criteria for Virtue

Aristotle... Continue reading "Aristotelian Ethics: Virtue, Deontology, and Consequentialism" »

Natural Law, Rights and Justice in Legal Theory

Key Concepts and Definitions

Natural right

A kind of action belonging to a broader moral order (natural law); it can be discovered in the nature of human realities. It is a whole bundle of institutions that allow basic justice in societies and among people.

Iusnaturalism

What is natural for humans is common to all (universal), and those elements that are not essential change according to the different conditions in which they develop (positive right).

Positive right

Law arranged by the human will.

Positivism

A philosophical current that denies the validity of speculative metaphysics. It precedes the juridical trend of legal positivism and exclusively admits as real what is empirical, countable, and

Malapropism-humorous misuse of A word that sounds similar to the word intended but has a ludicrously different Meaning

Mania-crazed, excessive excitement; Insanity; delusion

Marginal-related to or located at the Margin or border; at the lower limit of quality; insignificant

Materialistic-preoccupied with Material things; greedy for possessions

Mawkish-overly sentimental; maudlin

Meander-to travel along a winding or Indirect route; to ramble or stray from the topic

Medium-the means by which something Is conveyed or accomplished; a substance through which something is transferred Or conveyed; the materials used by an artist

Melancholy-gloomy; depressed and weary

Melee-a brawl; a confused fight or Struggle; a violent free-for-all; tumultuous confusion

Menagerie-

Essential Vocabulary List

• Ebb: To diminish.
• Ecclesiastical: Having to do with the church.
• Eclipse: To block the light of.
• Ecosystem: A community of organisms.
• Edict: An official decree.
• Edifice: A big, imposing building.
• Effectual: Effective.
• Efficacy: Effectiveness.
• Effigy: A likeness of a person.
• Elation: A feeling of great joy.
• Electorate: The voters.
• Elegy: A mournful poem or music.
• Elite: The best selected group.
• Elocution: The art of public speaking.
• Emaciate: To make extremely thin through starvation or illness.
• Emanate: To come forth.
• Emancipate: To liberate.
• Embargo: A government suspending foreign trade.
• Embellish: To adorn.
• Embody: To personify.
• Embroil: To involve in conflict.
• Embryonic: Undeveloped.
• Emissary: A messenger sent to represent another.
• Empathy:

The Origin of Philosophy

• It begins with the recognition of ignorance
• It's a theoretical type of knowledge that aims to transform reality
• It's universal
• It