Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Ethical Theories and Philosophical Concepts

Absolute: A principle that is universally binding and may never be overridden by another principle.

Abusive Fallacy: A type of informal fallacy in which we attack an opponent’s character rather than addressing his or her conclusion.

Act Utilitarianism: The theory that states “an act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative.”

Agapeism: An ethical theory based on the principle of love. Sometimes this is based on the New Testament injunctions to love (Matt. 22:37-40, 1 Cor. 13, and 1 John 4:7-8).

Agent: In ethical discourse, the individual who acts with intention, responsibility, and effect.

Agnostic: In a religious context, designates a person who claims not to... Continue reading "Ethical Theories and Philosophical Concepts Explained" »

English Grammar: Active to Passive Voice Transformations

Review of Active Voice (AV) to Passive Voice (PV) conversions:

• Simple Forms:
  • Read (AV) → is read (PV)
  • Bought (AV) → were bought (PV)
  • Will pay (AV) → will be paid (PV)
• Continuous Forms:
  • Is cooking (AV) → is being cooked (PV)
  • Were discussing (AV) → was being discussed (PV)
• Perfect Forms:
  • Have done (AV) → have been done (PV)
  • Had cleaned (AV) → had been cleaned (PV)
  • Will have finished (AV) → will have been finished (PV)

Teenagers Seeking Cosmetic Surgery: Key Findings

Summary of Reading Comprehension Points

1. The primary motivation for seeking surgery is being worried about physical appearance. (p. 1)
2. Sandra believes her father funded her operation to provoke anger in Sandra's mother. (p. 2)

Section A: Grammar and Vocabulary Solutions

1. Passive Voice and Reporting Verbs

1.1. Will be interviewed, wasn't understood, been estimated, was/has been ordered, had been accused, is alleged.

2. Reporting Structures and Infinitives

Are believed to be discussing, are thought to be, is reported to have cancelled, admitted making up / having made up, apologised for destroying, refused to move, reminds us to change.

3. Reported Speech and Clauses

Would love to visit, claimed that climate change is, whether the politician had been, enquired where the presentation was, complaint was (that) they couldn't, insisted on us being, against swimming.

4. Vocabulary and Terminology

Manifesto, showed no mercy, crate, charmed, concise, public office, feedback.

5.

Animal Farm

Pride and Prejudice

Things to Keep in Mind

The Flawed Lens

• Use of different narrative styles: dialogue vs. epistolary tradition
• Both used for characterization
  • Collins' long-winded speeches are reflected in the long-winded letters, contrasted with Elizabeth and Darcy's quick-witted exchanges
• Letters: Serve as monologues and reveal inner feelings and sentiments
• Dialogue: Character interactions that develop their complexities in different scenarios
• Both serve for plot development
• Morality in Pride and Prejudice
  • Austen feared that economic considerations would overcome morality in human conduct (reflected in Wickham's mercenary personality)
  • A sense of morality is instilled in the readers as they read about the events that occur
  • The message is made more impactful

Core Traits of Philosophers

• Lovers of wisdom
• Seekers of truth
• Reasonable
• Critically minded
• Questioning
• Curious
• Objective

Philosophers are generally *not* selfish, closed-minded, pessimistic, reckless individuals, or uninterested.

What is Wisdom?

Wisdom is the ability to use knowledge and intelligence for practical purposes.

Key Fields of Philosophy

• The study of ultimate reality: Metaphysics
• The limits of human knowledge: Epistemology
• The science of reasoning: Logic
• The study of morals: Ethics
• The study of society: Social/Political Philosophy
• The study of values: Axiology
• The study of beauty and art: Aesthetics

Etymology of Philosophy

• Philos ("love") + Sophia ("wisdom")

Stoicism

Key Figures in Stoicism

• Founder of Stoicism, taught in Athens: Zeno
• Created the system

History: Understanding Our Past

• Who: Everyone's past
• What: Records evidence of what people have done
• Where: Everywhere
• When: Ever since the beginning of time
• Why: To look at our past and learn about the people who came before us

Creation Stories: Origins of the World

• Who: Human societies
• What: Stories about how the world began
• Where: Everywhere
• When: Since the beginning of time
• Why: People trying to understand how the world came to be, according to their societies' points of view

Theory of Evolution: Darwin's Legacy

• Who: Charles Darwin
• What: A theory of how humans came to be
• Where: Origin of the human race
• When: Since the beginning of time
• Why: People seek to understand Earth's origins; this theory aligns with natural selection

Agricultural Revolution: Food

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Key Concepts in Business Ethics

1. Terminal values: Preferences about desired end states.
2. Instrumental values: Preferences regarding the means to desired ends.
3. Procedural justice: Concerned that policies and rules are fairly applied.
4. Distributive justice: Concerned that people are treated the same regardless of personal characteristics.
5. Interactional justice: The degree to which others are treated with dignity and respect.
6. Cultural relativism: Suggests there is no one right way to behave; ethical behaviour is determined by its cultural context.
7. Ethical dilemma: A situation that, although offering potential benefit or gain, may be considered unethical.
8. Ethics training: Seeks to help people understand the ethical aspects of decision-

Animal Anatomy and Features

External Body Parts

• Antennae: Butterfly, Snail
• Antlers: Deer
• Arms: Monkey, Gorilla
• Beak: Birds
• Claws: Lion, Dog, Eagle
• Fangs: Lion, Snake, Cat, Dog
• Feathers: Birds
• Fins: Fish, Dolphins
• Front Legs: (Patas delanteras)
• Fur: Dog, Lion
• Gills: Fish
• Hind Legs: Gorilla, Lion
• Hooves: Horse, Sheep, Deer
• Horn: Cow, Rhino
• Knuckles: Gorilla, Monkey
• Mane: Lion, Horse
• Palms: Gorilla
• Paws: Dog, Tiger
• Scales: Fish, Snake, Armadillo
• Shell: Tortoise, Snail
• Tail: Bird, Lion, Horse
• Tentacles: Octopus, Squid
• Tusks: Elephant, Walrus
• Whiskers: Cat
• Wings: Bird, Bat

Animal Vocalizations

• ROAR: Lion
• MIAOW: Cat
• BARK: Dog
• HISS: Snake
• WHISTLE: Dolphin
• SQUAWK: Parrot
• CHATTER: Monkey
• SQUEAK: Mouse
• BUZZ: Bee

Animal Idioms in English

These phrases use animal references:

• Be in the dog house:

Understanding Key Social Principles

The principle of subsidiarity derives from the Christian notion of society. It also determines the State's obligation to take additional, exceptional, complementary, and supportive action in social sectors or functions when society is unable to achieve its goals independently. It aims to promote and assist society. Main characteristics include:

1. It is a principle of reason, not of faith, limiting the natural rights of individuals and social groups.
2. It comprehends both dimensions of social life: the relationship between vertical and horizontal dimensions based on respect for and promotion of social freedom.
3. It is a grave, immutable principle, universal in time and space.
4. It self-adapts to each country and circumstance