Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

1. Saussure's Langue and Barthes's Myth

Langue

Saussure's concept of langue refers to the underlying system of rules and conventions that govern a language. It's the internal structure, understood by a social group, that allows for communication. While rarely consciously considered in daily life, langue provides the framework for linguistic expression.

Myth

Barthes's concept of myth builds upon Saussure's work. He argues that signs don't inherently possess meaning; meaning is arbitrary and culturally constructed. Myths are created through connotations attached to objects, making these associations feel natural. Advertisements often leverage myths to enhance product appeal.

Example of Myth in Advertising

A recent car commercial depicts a rugged,... Continue reading "Semiotics, Masculinity, and Verisimilitude in Media" »

Humanism is the belief that humanity possesses inherent beauty, worth, and dignity. Therefore, life here on Earth should be cherished rather than simply endured.

Why Humanism Developed

As the power of the Church began to decline, humanism grew in popularity

Before we delve into humanism and the effect it had on the individual, we must first discuss the reasons behind its development. During the Middle Ages (approximately the 3rd through 13th centuries), life and culture were primarily focused on the Church and religion. However, toward the beginning of the 14th century, the power of the Church began to greatly decline. This decline is the main reason for the development of humanism, as people became less interested in thinking about God, the afterlife,... Continue reading "The Rise of Humanism: Impact on Individual Independence" »

3. What is this allegory about? What characters intervene in it? What happens to the prisoner from the beginning to the end? Could it be based on some historical character? Who?

Plato believed that we exist in a physical world, akin to a cave, where we perceive only shadows and appearances. This allegory symbolizes the state of uneducated individuals and serves as the foundation of human existence. Beyond the cave lies the realm of ideas.

The central figure in this allegory is the prisoner, who undergoes a transformative journey from darkness to enlightenment.

Initially, we find ourselves chained, fixated on a wall, perceiving mere shadows. However, through education, we can break free and venture into the outside world. Yet, upon returning to... Continue reading "The Allegory of the Cave: Exploring Plato's Metaphorical Journey" »

Theme 5: Virginia Woolf

A very simple definition of feminism would emphasize that it's about having women’s voices heard, their ideas taken seriously, and having their demands for equality and basic rights incorporated into everyday “democratic” life.

Her Story: A Feminist Perspective

The early history of feminism can be seen in the existence of a cliché word which helps to express this, known as the problem of her story. It may be something of an overused term, but it’s a useful starting point. History needed, needs, and will need to be balanced by her story.

Lana Rakow has distinguished between four feminist approaches to popular culture:

1. The recovery and reappraisal approach
2. The images and representations approach
3. The reception and experience

Oscar Wilde: A Literary Icon of the Victorian Era

Oscar Wilde's Early Life

Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin in 1854.

Academic Journey

He attended Trinity College and earned a degree from Oxford University.

Personal Life and Controversies

In 1883, he married Constance Lloyd, who bore him two children. However, he soon grew tired of his marriage. In 1891, he met Lord Alfred Douglas, with whom he had a homosexual relationship, leading to Wilde's imprisonment for homosexual offences.

Philosophical Influences and Aestheticism

Wilde was a disciple of Walter Pater and embraced the theory of Art for Art's Sake. He believed that only Art, as the cult of Beauty, could prevent the murder of the soul.

Public Persona in London

Settling in London, Wilde became a fashionable... Continue reading "Oscar Wilde: Life, Works, and Aesthetic Philosophy" »

Nietzsche's Vitalism: A Response to 19th Century Thought

The 19th century was characterized by bourgeois revolutions against authoritarian regimes, the rise of liberalism, and rapid industrialization. In this scientific and cultural atmosphere, a series of philosophies like Vitalism emerged as a reaction against positivist excesses, marking the transition to the 20th century in the period prior to the First World War.

Vitalism and its Core Tenets

Among these transitional currents, Vitalism focused on aspects undervalued by positivism, such as life, the spirit, freedom, and history. Vitalism was mainly represented by Friedrich Nietzsche, who considered life as the radical reality. Nietzsche was deeply influenced by Schopenhauer's irrationalism.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Vitalism: Shaping 19th Century Western Philosophy" »

Job Application Essentials

Education Requirements

Lowest: High school diploma. Highest: Master's degree.

Importance of Education in Job Seeking

A worker with more skills and education has a wider range of job opportunities.

Essential Employee Skills

• Proficiency in reading to perform job duties.
• Effective communication skills.
• Basic computer skills, including data entry and retrieval.
• Fundamental work-related abilities.

Advantages of Work Experience

• Possession of proven skills and familiarity with job tasks.
• Reduced training time for new roles.
• Higher earning potential for skilled and experienced individuals.

Employer-Sought Character Traits

• Employers value hard work, honesty, dependability, and task completion.
• A positive work attitude, dedication to quality,

As the title makes plain, Thomson argues that abortion is not impermissible. More precisely, she argues for the conclusion that abortion is sometimes permissible; she grants that there are scenarios in which obtaining an abortion would be immoral. What is especially novel is the manner in which Thomson constructs her argument. She begins the essay by pointing out that the debate over abortion seems to many people to hinge on whether or not the fetus is a person. Most feel that if we could only determine the answer to that puzzle, the implications for abortion would be clear; namely, that if fetuses are persons then abortions must be impermissible, and that if fetuses are not persons then abortions must be permissible. Thomson, though, thinks

Major Theories of Truth

Truth as Correspondence

Considers a proposition to be true when there is a match between what the proposition expresses and the reality to which it refers.

Truth as Coherence

A proposition is true if it does not contradict the rest of the accepted propositions. The coherence of the new proposition with those we already know to be true indicates that this new one is also true.

Truth as Success (Pragmatism)

Considers a proposition to be true when it is useful and therefore leads to success. The truth of a proposition coincides with its consequences. A proposition is true if its implementation has positive results.

Limits of Knowledge

Dogmatism

Admits the possibility of knowing things in their true being or in themselves, and the... Continue reading "Major Theories of Truth and Knowledge Limits" »

Satire

Satire refers to any writing, in poetry or prose, with the purpose to ridicule, censure (criticize unfavorably), and correct the vices, follies, stupidities, and corruptions of society that threaten good moral order and literary discipline. The best and most representative works are found in those written by Pope and Swift, two masters of satire. Some satire is meant to make us laugh at human foolishness and weaknesses; some satire is meant to make us angry about human vices and crimes. Satire can be aimed at humanity in general, stereotyped groups, or a particular person.

Techniques of Satire

There are some common techniques used in satire:

• Exaggeration: To enlarge, increase, or represent something beyond normal bounds so that it becomes