Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Solidarism and the Enforcement of International Rule

The classical English School scholar, Hedley Bull, defined solidarism as the collective enforcement of international rules and the guardianship of human rights. Solidarism is driven by states for the purpose and interests of the people they serve.

In a solidarist order, individuals possess basic rights (e.g., not to be killed or harmed). If harm is being undertaken and the state is unable to prevent it, solidarist theory holds that the members of the international society have a duty to intervene.

The Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention in the UN Order

Within the UN framework, the primary problem regarding humanitarian intervention was not the danger that external powers showed no regard for... Continue reading "Solidarism, Pluralism, and the R2P Doctrine in International Relations" »

Beowulf: Key Events and Literary Elements

Early Danish History

Hrothgar Builds Heorot

Grendel Attacks

Beowulf Hears the News

The Coast Guard Greets Beowulf

Wulfgar Greets Beowulf

Hrothgar Greets Beowulf

Unferth Challenges Beowulf; Beowulf Replies

Wealhtheow Greets Beowulf

Beowulf and Grendel Fight

Celebrations at Heorot; Beowulf Rewarded

The story of Sigemund and the Finn episode is told.

More Celebrations

Grendel's Mother Attacks

Beowulf Comes to Hrothgar's Aid

Beowulf Fights Grendel's Mother

Beowulf sinks into the mere, fights Grendel's mother, and cuts off Grendel's head.

Celebrations and Thanks

Hrothgar's Prophecy and Warning

Gifts and parting.

Home to Hygelac and Queen Hygd

Contrast between Queen Modthryth and Queen Hygd revealed.

Beowulf Recounts His Adventures

(... Continue reading "Beowulf: Summary of Key Events and Literary Elements" »

Martin Luther King Jr.'s Philosophy of Non-Violence

In Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail," natural laws are described as being created under the universal moral law, or in this case, the law of God. These truths were originated to be the essentials of what makes us human. However, unjust laws were made to create unequal treatment between two groups of our society: the rich and the poor. Therefore, favoring one side to become superior while the other side is weakened. Civil disobedience is refusing to comply with the government's commands, in which facing the consequences will likely occur. Rather than submitting to unjust laws, King used the acts of civil disobedience to achieve seemingly impossible goals. Furthermore, these... Continue reading "Civil Disobedience and Ethical Humanism: Principles of Justice" »

Transitions are words or phrases that connect two ideas. Transitions help your reader follow your line of thought. You can use transitions to add information, contrast ideas, or show cause and effect. A transition usually connects two sentences or independent clauses. When it connects two sentences, use a period. When it connects two independent clauses, use a semicolon (;). When it begins a sentence or clause, use a comma after the transition.

Adding Information with Transitions

You can use transitional words such as the conjunctive adverbs also and furthermore to add information to a statement.

More people are being born than are dying. Also, people are living longer. The building will have 180 floors; furthermore, it will have stores and cinemas.... Continue reading "Using Transition Words and Phrases Effectively" »

Utilitarianism - Mill

• Why intentions/duty/inclination don't really matter (for Utilitarianism):

To utilitarians, intentions don't matter because when looking at a situation you need to strip away the intentions so that you can look at the act alone as good or bad

• Explain why happiness/pleasure is the desired goal of morality in Utilitarianism

Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote overall human happiness

• The relationship between virtue and disinterestedness

Virtue can still be desired but should be desired disinterestedly (so basically not gaining virtue for your own benefit)

Deontology - Kant

• Principle of volition

A principle that governs any rational will

• Why/how consequences aren't the deciding factor for ethical goodness

Deontology... Continue reading "Comparing Utilitarianism, Deontology, Virtue Ethics, and American Indian Ethics" »

The Shift Towards Organic Alternatives

It wasn't until people realized the harmful practices of food corporations that they began seeking alternatives. This realization sparked a paradigm shift in consumer behavior and attitudes toward genetically modified products. These texts explore this issue, which resonates with the vast majority of the public, from different perspectives.

Organic Food Awareness and Accessibility

The first passage suggests that consumers of naturally processed foods are often unaware of what genetically modified products truly entail. However, it's arguably those who purchase organic food who are most aware of the potential harm in conventional options. This awareness stems not only from concerns about chemicals but also... Continue reading "The Rise of Organic Farming: A Response to Harmful Food Production" »

Care Ethics: Held's Theory

Major Features of Care Ethics

• Attending to Particular Others: Focusing on specific individuals we have responsibilities towards, such as maternalism.
• Recognition of Dependence and Interdependence: Acknowledging that humans rely on others throughout their lives, creating moral obligations.
• Value of Emotion: Emphasizing the importance of emotions like sympathy, empathy, and responsiveness in moral decision-making.

Kinds of Emotions Valued and Rejected

• Valued Emotions: Sympathy, empathy, sensitivity, responsiveness.
• Rejected Emotions: Egoistic feelings, favoritism, aggressive impulses.

Care as Practice and Value

• Care as Practice: Guides us in responding to needs and understanding why we should.
• Care as Virtue: Values caring personalities

What is Epistemology?

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge and how we understand reality. This document delves into the main questions philosophers have asked about human knowledge, focusing on our two primary cognitive faculties: reason and the senses.

Key Areas of Epistemological Inquiry

• Methods proposed to guarantee rigorous and trustworthy acquisition of knowledge.
• The objective of all knowledge: truth. What is truth, and what criteria have been proposed for identifying it?
• Philosophical theories that question whether human knowledge is limited or limitless.

Cognitive Faculties: Reason and the Senses

Reason and the senses are the two main instruments we use to experience reality. Our senses allow us to be aware of our... Continue reading "Epistemology: Understanding Human Knowledge and Reality" »