Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is the false idea that nature legitimises the oppression of the socially weaker by the stronger. It is based on the Darwinian theory of evolution, which states that the fittest individuals survive and reproduce. However, Social Darwinism ignores the fact that humans are not simply animals, and that we have developed moral and ethical values that prevent us from acting in a purely selfish manner.

The Role of Aggression and Violence in the Evolution of Species

Aggression among members of the same species is fundamental for the conservation of the species. For example, fighting between rivals helps to determine who is the strongest and most fit to reproduce. In the case of humans, aggression has also played a role... Continue reading "Philosophical Implications of Evolutionism" »

Vocabulary Builder: Essential Words and Definitions

Cosy: Warm and comfortable.

Endangered: Said about species of animals in danger of extinction.

Fierce: Violent and savage.

Hectic: Extremely active.

Illogical: Something with a lack of logic.

Impossible: Something that cannot be done or achieved.

Inconvenient: Something that causes problems or difficulties.

International: Involving many nationalities.

Irrelevant: Something not important in a particular case.

Lifelong: Said about something that lasts or is supposed to remain forever.

Overpopulated: That has more people than permitted or advisable.

Tame: Change from wild to domesticate made by humans.

Unfair: Something that is not honest or fair.

Wild: Said of an animal living in its natural environment.

Phrases

   1.Argument: a set Of propositions consisting of premises and a conclusion.Deduction: Arguments where the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.Induction: Arguments where the conclusion follows from the premises with some degree of Probability. Validity: when It is impossible for a deductive argument to have all true premises and a false Conclusion. Soundness: when a Deductive argument is valid and all the premises are actually true.Strength: when The conclusion is probable/likely relative to the premises in an inductive Argument. Reliability: when An inductive argument is strong and all the premises are actually true.It is important because is like the basis of Everything. It brings some structure of were to start the argument,

Forms of Economic Morality in Society

This treatise explores three distinct forms of economic morality inherent in every society. These are:

• Communism
• Exchange
• Hierarchy

It's crucial to understand that these are not political regimes; rather, they are fundamental principles that coexist and combine within any given society.

The Principle of Communism in Society

It is vital not to confuse this concept of communism with the political ideology associated with the USSR; these are distinct terms. The economic morality of communism, as discussed here, defines any human relationship operating under the principles of "each according to his possibilities; each according to his needs."

This principle forms the very basis of human sociability, making society... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Morality: Social Systems and Human Interaction" »

BEAUTY AND AESTHETICS

What is beauty?: The human capacity to feel something or have sensations. In philosophy, AESTHETICS refers to a particular type of sensations: those related to beauty and ugliness

Philosophers and Beauty

The Greek philosophers believed that beauty is real by itself

Realists think that beauty is part of something else

Modernists believe that beauty is something we create

AESTHETICS-The study of beauty or the philosophy of art

THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE-When an encounter with beauty occurs, whether it is the product of nature or art

1. Feeling that time has stopped
2. Lightness in the perception of reality.
3. Forgetting self
4. Symbolic.
5. Ephemeral.
6. Pleasurable

The definition of beauty (according to aesthetics)

1. PERFECTION OF FORM
2. NEATNESS
3. AN ATTRACTIVE

Introduction to Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which questions reality. Why do things and beings exist? What are they? Where do we come from? Metaphysical doctrines have always been developed to oppose rival doctrines.

Metaphysical categories: unity-plurality, reality-appearance, essence-existence, necessity-contingency, matter-spirit

Metaphysical doctrines: monism-pluralism, essentialism-existentialism, materialism-dualism

The Criteria of Demarcation

The Criteria of Demarcation For science to be considered scientific, criteria were established to distinguish between what is a scientific discipline and what is not. Verificationism and falsificationism propose two different sets of criteria.

Verificationism states that only theories... Continue reading "Metaphysics, Scientific Method, and Cosmology: A Historical Overview" »

Teenagers and Unhealthy Diets

Some teenagers tend to eat unhealthy diets due to a lack of awareness about the consequences. These diets are often the easiest options, primarily because parents don't always educate their children about the potential health risks. Moreover, junk food is often easier to prepare, more affordable, and tends to be tastier. However, tastiness doesn't equate to healthiness. We are constantly bombarded with tempting advertisements for unhealthy food, whether through digital media, television, or even on the street. Think of McDonald's, Burger King, and Telepizza constantly showcasing their appealing yet unhealthy products.

Promoting Healthy Habits

We need collective campaigns to promote both sports and healthy, varied... Continue reading "Teen Diets & Cousin Moha: Health, Humor, and Family Ties" »

Humanism

Humanism was the first cultural movement to develop an anthropocentric worldview. It defended that human beings, their intelligence and their love of knowledge were some of the main concerns of humanists, even though they were at the service of the Christian faith.

Empiricism

Empiricism claimed that we should not accept reasoning that could not be empirically validated through observation and experimentation.

Rationalism

Rationalism stated that the truths established by authority and tradition should be criticised, and that reason was the only valid criterion.

Science

Science is knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, with a systematic structure from which we deduce general principles and laws that can be verified experimentally.... Continue reading "From Humanism to the Industrial Revolution: Key Movements and Concepts" »

A Virtuous Individual

An individual who I considered to be virtuous is my best friend, Reid Bartholomew. Reid would always look out for everyone around him, friends, and family. The Golden Mean is the midpoint between two extremes, which are known as deficiency and excess. Where the golden mean lies between the vices depends on the situation. For example, courage could be considered the golden mean while cowardice is a deficiency and recklessness is an excess.

In Aristotle’s virtue ethics, he provided three conditions for authentic moral actions.

1. The subject knows well what he is doing. For instance, Reid had planned on completing all his homework for one day so he would have more time to study for his midterms the next day.
2. The subject does

Contra Descartes and Kant, the cogito cannot be aware of anything let alone itself without the recognition of its own existence in the gaze of the other. “I cannot obtain any truth