Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Major Theories of Truth

Truth as Correspondence

Considers a proposition to be true when there is a match between what the proposition expresses and the reality to which it refers.

Truth as Coherence

A proposition is true if it does not contradict the rest of the accepted propositions. The coherence of the new proposition with those we already know to be true indicates that this new one is also true.

Truth as Success (Pragmatism)

Considers a proposition to be true when it is useful and therefore leads to success. The truth of a proposition coincides with its consequences. A proposition is true if its implementation has positive results.

Limits of Knowledge

Dogmatism

Admits the possibility of knowing things in their true being or in themselves, and the... Continue reading "Major Theories of Truth and Knowledge Limits" »

Satire

Satire refers to any writing, in poetry or prose, with the purpose to ridicule, censure (criticize unfavorably), and correct the vices, follies, stupidities, and corruptions of society that threaten good moral order and literary discipline. The best and most representative works are found in those written by Pope and Swift, two masters of satire. Some satire is meant to make us laugh at human foolishness and weaknesses; some satire is meant to make us angry about human vices and crimes. Satire can be aimed at humanity in general, stereotyped groups, or a particular person.

Techniques of Satire

There are some common techniques used in satire:

• Exaggeration: To enlarge, increase, or represent something beyond normal bounds so that it becomes

27 Essential Vocabulary Terms and Precise Definitions

Enhance your understanding of complex concepts across various fields, from political science and employment to parapsychology and engineering, with this list of 27 key terms and their precise definitions.

1. Regime: A government, especially an authoritarian one.
2. Struggle: Make forceful or violent efforts to get free of restraint or constriction.
3. Survivor: A person who remains alive after an event in which others have died.
4. Sculptor: An artist who makes sculptures.
5. Employer: A person or organization that employs people.
6. Employee: A person employed for wages or salary, especially at a nonexecutive level.
7. Scrutinize: Examine or inspect closely and thoroughly.
8. Afterwards: At a later or future time; subsequently.

Ethical Theories and Philosophical Concepts

Absolute: A principle that is universally binding and may never be overridden by another principle.

Abusive Fallacy: A type of informal fallacy in which we attack an opponent’s character rather than addressing his or her conclusion.

Act Utilitarianism: The theory that states “an act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative.”

Agapeism: An ethical theory based on the principle of love. Sometimes this is based on the New Testament injunctions to love (Matt. 22:37-40, 1 Cor. 13, and 1 John 4:7-8).

Agent: In ethical discourse, the individual who acts with intention, responsibility, and effect.

Agnostic: In a religious context, designates a person who claims not to... Continue reading "Ethical Theories and Philosophical Concepts Explained" »

English Grammar: Active to Passive Voice Transformations

Review of Active Voice (AV) to Passive Voice (PV) conversions:

• Simple Forms:
  • Read (AV) → is read (PV)
  • Bought (AV) → were bought (PV)
  • Will pay (AV) → will be paid (PV)
• Continuous Forms:
  • Is cooking (AV) → is being cooked (PV)
  • Were discussing (AV) → was being discussed (PV)
• Perfect Forms:
  • Have done (AV) → have been done (PV)
  • Had cleaned (AV) → had been cleaned (PV)
  • Will have finished (AV) → will have been finished (PV)

Teenagers Seeking Cosmetic Surgery: Key Findings

Summary of Reading Comprehension Points

1. The primary motivation for seeking surgery is being worried about physical appearance. (p. 1)
2. Sandra believes her father funded her operation to provoke anger in Sandra's mother. (p. 2)

Animal Farm

Pride and Prejudice

Things to Keep in Mind

The Flawed Lens

• Use of different narrative styles: dialogue vs. epistolary tradition
• Both used for characterization
  • Collins' long-winded speeches are reflected in the long-winded letters, contrasted with Elizabeth and Darcy's quick-witted exchanges
• Letters: Serve as monologues and reveal inner feelings and sentiments
• Dialogue: Character interactions that develop their complexities in different scenarios
• Both serve for plot development
• Morality in Pride and Prejudice
  • Austen feared that economic considerations would overcome morality in human conduct (reflected in Wickham's mercenary personality)
  • A sense of morality is instilled in the readers as they read about the events that occur
  • The message is made more impactful

Core Traits of Philosophers

• Lovers of wisdom
• Seekers of truth
• Reasonable
• Critically minded
• Questioning
• Curious
• Objective

Philosophers are generally *not* selfish, closed-minded, pessimistic, reckless individuals, or uninterested.

What is Wisdom?

Wisdom is the ability to use knowledge and intelligence for practical purposes.

Key Fields of Philosophy

• The study of ultimate reality: Metaphysics
• The limits of human knowledge: Epistemology
• The science of reasoning: Logic
• The study of morals: Ethics
• The study of society: Social/Political Philosophy
• The study of values: Axiology
• The study of beauty and art: Aesthetics

Etymology of Philosophy

• Philos ("love") + Sophia ("wisdom")

Stoicism

Key Figures in Stoicism

• Founder of Stoicism, taught in Athens: Zeno
• Created the system

History: Understanding Our Past

• Who: Everyone's past
• What: Records evidence of what people have done
• Where: Everywhere
• When: Ever since the beginning of time
• Why: To look at our past and learn about the people who came before us

Creation Stories: Origins of the World

• Who: Human societies
• What: Stories about how the world began
• Where: Everywhere
• When: Since the beginning of time
• Why: People trying to understand how the world came to be, according to their societies' points of view

Theory of Evolution: Darwin's Legacy

• Who: Charles Darwin
• What: A theory of how humans came to be
• Where: Origin of the human race
• When: Since the beginning of time
• Why: People seek to understand Earth's origins; this theory aligns with natural selection

Agricultural Revolution: Food