Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Dialectic Method

This proposes a philosophical research procedure based on dialogue. A dialogue is a discussion between people holding different points of view. If the dialogue is fruitful, the differing points of view are overcome and a consensus is reached.

The difference between an ordinary dialogue and the dialectic method is that in an ordinary dialogue there are always two or more speakers, whereas in the dialectic method, opposing ideas can be put forward by one single thinker. This method has been used by many philosophers throughout history, most notably Plato, Hegel, and Marx.

The Phenomenological Method

Proposed by Husserl, this method aims to describe the sense that the world has for us. In knowing an object, we do not comprehend... Continue reading "Philosophical Methods: Dialectics, Phenomenology, and Truth" »

1. Introduction

• The scientific method is recognized as the most effective approach for understanding and predicting the behavior of the natural world.
• Scientific inventions have been used to both improve and destroy human life.
• Successful manipulations of the natural world are defined as technology.
• The scientific method represents a significant advancement over previous ways of acquiring knowledge, moving from "truth by authority" to detailed, empirical observations.

2. The Simple View of the Scientific Method (SVSM)

Scientists make observations that aim to be as objective, unbiased, and unprejudiced as possible. They then create a theory to explain the pattern of results.

• Theory: A combination of observations and predictions about future events.

Defining Opinion, Belief, and Knowledge

Opinion: By opinion, we mean a subjective assessment about something we cannot be sure of and cannot prove to others. It is an assessment about reality, or how it should be, based on our interests and desires, but it is not supported by convincing reason.

The Nature of Belief

Belief: We can distinguish two main types or uses:

• Hesitant use: When we want to express that we are not sure if what we are talking about is true; that is, we hesitate about its veracity.
• Assertive use: When we are sure about something but we do not have enough evidence to prove it.

Defining Knowledge

Knowledge: It is a belief about something we are sure of, and also something we can prove. Therefore, being able to justify something rationally... Continue reading "Epistemology: Understanding Opinion, Belief, and Knowledge" »

Five Bioethical Principles

• Autonomy: A person's rational capacity for self-governance or self-determination; the ability to direct one's own life.
• Nonmaleficence: Not to intentionally harm others.
• Beneficence: To constitute the very soul of morality (doing good to others).
• Utility: This principle says that we should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad for all concerned.
• Justice: People getting what is fair or what is their due.

Six Key Moral Theories

• Utilitarianism: A consequentialist moral theory that insists the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results.
• Kantianism/Deontology: Kant's principle of respect for persons says that we should always treat persons never merely as a means to an end; i.e., don't use

Philosophical Schools of Thought

Major Philosophers and Their Ideas

Key Concepts and Arguments:

1. Accepted both ideas of permanence (higher forms) and impermanence (lower forms). Plato
2. Reality is divided into two parts: the visible and the invisible. Plato
3. Believed humans are born without any knowledge. Locke
4. Created a synthesis between rationalism and empiricism. Kant
5. Thought the mind and body are connected in the pituitary gland. Descartes
6. Concluded there is as much reality in the cause as in the effect. Descartes
7. Found the mind to be structured to apprehend “Sense reality.” Kant
8. Said, “The seen is changing. The unseen

Understanding the Rat Race and Downshifting

Rat race: A frustrating, hard-to-break financial lifestyle. Antonia is tired of the rat race; now she is living in the countryside.

Key Vocabulary for Rural Living

• Fleetingly: Short or quick. He wondered fleetingly if she knew.
• Live off the land: To eat only the food that one produces from the land. The homeless man wandered about, living off the land.
• Reliant: Dependent on something.
• Have a stab at: To try to do something, or to try an activity that you have not done before.
• Wholesome: Good for you, and likely to improve your life either physically, morally, or emotionally.
• Scratch a living: To manage to earn only just enough money to live (as a farmer).
• Kids in tow: Accompanying. He arrived at the party

Philosophical Views on Human Nature and Law

There are many reasons why human nature and the purpose of laws exist. Thomas Hobbes believed human nature to be brutish and destructive; thus, the purpose of laws is to prevent such nature and maintain order. Hypothetically, an anti-violence law regulating society to prevent harm would align with Hobbes's views.

For Aristotle, human life is neither inherently good nor bad by nature; rather, upbringing determines social and political character. Nevertheless, Aristotle believed the purpose of laws is to encourage virtue. He would likely support laws aiding those in need, especially after natural disasters. For instance, the Model Act for Facilitation of International Disaster Relief and Recovery Assistance... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Law and Human Rights" »

This document details significant hominin fossil discoveries and the crucial milestones in human evolution, from early bipedalism to the development of complex thought and culture.

Notable Hominin Fossils and Their Characteristics

True or False

1. Space and time are forms of sensibility and objects given in intuitions. T
2. A unicorn is a simple idea, but horse and horn are complex as they result from sensations. F
3. For Descartes, the mind is an infinite substance trapped in the finite body. F
4. Since babies cannot count, quantity is learned and is not an a priori category of the understanding. T
5. Reflections, for Locke, are acts of the mind while sensation provides ideas of the external world. T
6. Kant believed self, cosmos, and God offer unity and completeness. T
7. Although Kant argued that minds move towards wholeness, the way the mind analyzes raw data differs by culture. T
8. While odor and taste are part of objects, motion depends on the observer. F
9. The word empiricism is derived from the

Foundations of Citizen Rights (Articles 18, 20, 21)

1. Defining the Individual Citizen (Article 20)

An individual is considered a citizen. One does not need to be economically active to rely on citizen rights; rights are gained upon birth in the EU.

2. Measuring Breaches of Rights (Articles 21, 18, 20)

• Right to Reside (Article 21): The right of residence exists but can be limited if the individual lacks sufficient resources.
• Non-Discrimination (Article 18): Protects against discrimination based on nationality. Once people have a residence permit, if they are not economically active, they can rely on Article 18 for social assistance.
• Students may request loans. Members States (MS) can require social integration but do not require settled status; this