Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Views on Human Nature and Law

There are many reasons why human nature and the purpose of laws exist. Thomas Hobbes believed human nature to be brutish and destructive; thus, the purpose of laws is to prevent such nature and maintain order. Hypothetically, an anti-violence law regulating society to prevent harm would align with Hobbes's views.

For Aristotle, human life is neither inherently good nor bad by nature; rather, upbringing determines social and political character. Nevertheless, Aristotle believed the purpose of laws is to encourage virtue. He would likely support laws aiding those in need, especially after natural disasters. For instance, the Model Act for Facilitation of International Disaster Relief and Recovery Assistance... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Law and Human Rights" »

This document details significant hominin fossil discoveries and the crucial milestones in human evolution, from early bipedalism to the development of complex thought and culture.

Notable Hominin Fossils and Their Characteristics

True or False

1. Space and time are forms of sensibility and objects given in intuitions. T
2. A unicorn is a simple idea, but horse and horn are complex as they result from sensations. F
3. For Descartes, the mind is an infinite substance trapped in the finite body. F
4. Since babies cannot count, quantity is learned and is not an a priori category of the understanding. T
5. Reflections, for Locke, are acts of the mind while sensation provides ideas of the external world. T
6. Kant believed self, cosmos, and God offer unity and completeness. T
7. Although Kant argued that minds move towards wholeness, the way the mind analyzes raw data differs by culture. T
8. While odor and taste are part of objects, motion depends on the observer. F
9. The word empiricism is derived from the

Foundations of Citizen Rights (Articles 18, 20, 21)

1. Defining the Individual Citizen (Article 20)

An individual is considered a citizen. One does not need to be economically active to rely on citizen rights; rights are gained upon birth in the EU.

2. Measuring Breaches of Rights (Articles 21, 18, 20)

• Right to Reside (Article 21): The right of residence exists but can be limited if the individual lacks sufficient resources.
• Non-Discrimination (Article 18): Protects against discrimination based on nationality. Once people have a residence permit, if they are not economically active, they can rely on Article 18 for social assistance.
• Students may request loans. Members States (MS) can require social integration but do not require settled status; this

Essential Vocabulary List

• Sublime: Such excellence or beauty as to inspire great admiration.
• Potentate: A person who possesses great power as a ruler.
• Requisition: An authoritative or formal demand.
• Adjuration: An oath or promise.
• Cessation: A temporary or complete stopping.
• Supplicatory: Asking humbly and earnestly.
• Implacable: Relentless; unstoppable.
• Admonitory: Cautioning of something; warning.
• Obstinacy: Stubbornness.
• Aphorism: A pithy observation that contains a general truth.
• Cadence: A modulation or inflection in the voice.
• Compunction: A feeling of guilt or moral scruple that follows the doing of something bad.
• Abject: Extremely bad, unpleasant, or degrading.
• Dejected: To make sad or dispirited.
• Propitiate: To win or regain the favor of a god or

Developing the Argument

• Let us begin by saying that…
• First of all, … must be emphasized…
• We are assuming that…
• First, let us concentrate on the problem of…
• First, we need to consider whether…
• We have taken as a starting point…
• If we start from the principle of…, we shall be able to see how…
• The first… that we shall examine is…

Connecting Elements

• However, we should now focus our attention on…
• Let us move on to another aspect of…
• Let us turn our attention to the second point that…
• Next, we shall look at another closely related issue…
• Next, we shall consider…
• Let us now move on to…
• But, to return to the issue…
• Let us look in greater detail at…

The Other Side of the Argument

• Now let us move on to the second argument, according

Essential Vocabulary List: D-Words

• Derelict: Neglectful; delinquent.
• Desist: To stop doing something.
• Devout: Deeply religious.
• Diatribe: A bitter, abusive denunciation.
• Dichotomy: Division into two parts, especially contradictory ones.
• Diffuse: To cause to spread out.
• Dilapidated: Broken-down.
• Dilate: To make larger.
• Dilemma: A situation in which one must choose between two equally unattractive choices.
• Diminution: The act or process of diminishing.
• Dire: Disastrous.
• Dirge: A funeral song.
• Disaffect: To cause to lose affection.
• Disarray: Disorder.
• Disclaim: To deny any claim to.
• Discomfit: To frustrate.
• Disconcert: To upset.
• Discourse: Spoken or written expression in words.
• Discrepancy: Difference.
• Discursive: Rambling from one topic to another, usually aimlessly.

Meaning of Insurance

Insurance is a form of contract under which one party (the Insurer or Insurance Company) agrees, in return for a consideration (the Insurance Premium), to pay an agreed sum of money to another party (the Insured) to compensate for a loss, damage, or injury to something of value in which the insured has a financial interest as a result of some uncertain event.

Core Principles of Insurance

Insurance contracts are governed by several fundamental principles:

1. Utmost Good Faith (Uberrimae Fidei)

   Insurance contracts are based upon mutual trust and confidence between the insurer and the insured. It is a condition of every insurance contract that both parties (the insurer and the insured) must disclose every material fact and information

Essential English Vocabulary List

• Confine: "To limit an activity." Example: "Please confine your use of the phone to business calls."
• Fail: "To not succeed in what you are trying to achieve." Example: "He failed in his attempt to break the record."
• Engage: "To employ someone." Example: "I have engaged a secretary to deal with all my paperwork."
• Deal: "An agreement, especially in business." Example: "She got a good deal on her new house."
• Catch: "To take hold of something." Example: "He caught hold of my arm."
• Remove: "To take something away." Example: "This detergent will remove even old stains."
• Partner: "A person or organization you are closely involved with in some way." Example: "He gave up his job as a police officer after his partner was killed.

The Concept of Jihad and Its Relation to Terrorism

“The concept of Jihad is the basis of terrorism.” (You may agree or disagree with the statement on the basis of facts you may provide.)

While Islam in general is misunderstood in the Western world, perhaps no other Islamic term evokes such strong reactions as the word Jihad. I strongly disagree with the assertion that Jihad is the basis of terrorism. In this essay, I will argue why terrorism cannot be compared to Jihad and state the fundamental differences between both terms.

The Misconception of Holy War

The word Jihad is often mistranslated as “Holy War.” The Arabic equivalent of “Holy War” is harb-u-muqadasah. This term is not found in any verse of the Qur’an. There is nothing... Continue reading "Distinguishing Jihad from Terrorism: A Conceptual Analysis" »