Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

A Historical and Cultural Perspective of Philosophy II: Renaissance

Classical authors of Greco-Roman culture were explored and studied. During the 17th century, philosophers focused their interest on questions related to our knowledge of reality. During this period, two important branches of philosophy emerged: Rationalism (Descartes' innate ideas res cognition vs res extensa) and Empiricism (Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume) - our knowledge is originated in the sensorial information. There is no knowledge of any other kind. During the Enlightenment (18th century), philosophy believed that society must be improved. Philosophers argued that this improvement of society would be achieved by educating the population and cultivating free thought (Rousseau,... Continue reading "History and Evolution of Philosophy: From Renaissance to Contemporary Times" »

·A just person is happy, and an unjust one wretched. SOCRATES PLATO’S REPUBLIC

·Crooked wood must await steaming and straightening on the shaping frame, and only then does it become straight. Blunt metal must await honing and grinding, and only then does it become sharp. Now since people’s nature is bad, they must await teachers and proper models, and only then do they become correct in their behavior. XUNXI

·Even those who practice justice do so against their will because they lack the power to do wrong. PLATO’S REPUBLIC

·Every man believes that injustice is much more profitable to himself than justice, and any exponent of this argument will say that he is right. The man who did not wish to do wrong with that opportunity, and did not... Continue reading "Quotes on Justice, Virtue, and Human Nature" »

Models of Explanation

The Scopes Trial: A Clash of Beliefs

The Core Conflict

The play revolves around three central characters: Brady, Drummond, and Rachel. The primary conflict between Drummond and Brady highlights the clash between fundamentalism and modernism. Brady, the prosecuting attorney, champions creationism and fights to prohibit the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution. Drummond, on the other hand, supports evolutionism. Initially, Brady and Drummond were friends who admired and understood each other. However, their opposing beliefs transform them into adversaries. This conflict evolves throughout the play. While Brady wins the trial, Drummond achieves a moral victory as Cates stands up for his beliefs.

Brady's Transformation

Matthew Harrison Brady,... Continue reading "Clash of Beliefs: Dramatizing the Scopes Trial" »

Ancestor Beliefs and Traditional Costumes

Many people have misconceptions about ancestor beliefs and traditional costumes. Some consider them to be disturbing or forbidden, while others find them to be proper and appropriate. However, it is important to not ignore or refuse to stay behind these customs, as they are a part of our roots and heritage.

Traditional costumes are not just a comeback attempt or a stereotype. They are a creative and well-deserved expression of our cultural identity. They may seem narrow-minded or treacherous to some, but they are actually a typical and widespread phenomenon worldwide.

It is crucial to keep the spirit of our ancestors alive and not let it be overshadowed by alien and modern influences. Just like a spacecraft... Continue reading "The Impact of Ancestor Beliefs on Traditional Costumes" »

Our Committee Emphasizes the Importance of English Language Education

Our committee also emphasizes the importance of ensuring that every European student must have at least the B1 level in English by the end of their secondary education.

Bearing in mind that the lack of knowledge of a second language decreases citizens' opportunities of finding a job as well as their ability to communicate with foreigners.

The Committee on Culture and Education draws attention to the European Commission on the beneficial aspects of providing unemployed people the possibility of attending free language classes.

Utilitarian ethics bases right and wrong on the greatest happiness principle. This principle states that actions are considered moral when they tend to promote happiness and deter its opposite, and immoral when the opposite occurs. This principle was formulated by Jeremy Bentham. Mill claimed that it is demeaning to reduce the meaning of life to pleasure. Utility is defined as pleasure itself and the absence of pain. Happiness is a sign that we are exercising our higher faculties.

When making a moral judgment on an action, utilitarianism thus takes into account not just the quantity but also the quality of the pleasures resulting from it. A pleasure is of higher quality if people would choose it over a different pleasure even if it is accompanied... Continue reading "Utilitarian Ethics: The Greatest Happiness Principle and Moral Judgments" »

Marxist Legal Theory

Deterministic View

For Marx, society divides into two distinct classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. These classes are distinguished by their relationship to the means of production. The bourgeoisie, owning the means of production, exploit the labor of the proletariat, creating an inherent power struggle. This struggle manifests in various aspects of society, including law.

Marx argues that law, morality, and religion serve to mask bourgeois interests. Law, defined and implemented by the economic elite, perpetuates their dominance. This deterministic view suggests a direct link between a society's economy and its legal system, with the imbalance of power perpetuating conflict between the classes.

Ideology and Law

Marx... Continue reading "Marxist Legal Theory: Exploring Determinism and Ideology in Law" »

Principle of Utility

The principle of utility states that actions or behaviors are right in so far as they promote happiness or pleasure, wrong as they tend to produce unhappiness or pain. Hence, utility is a teleological principle.

Act Utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory of ethics which states that a person's act is morally right if and only if it produces the best possible results in that specific situation.

Rule Utilitarianism

Rule utilitarianism is a form of utilitarianism that says an action is right as it conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good, or that 'the rightness or wrongness of a particular action is a function of the correctness of the rule of which it is an instance'.

Euthanasia

Euthanasia (from Greek:... Continue reading "Understanding Utilitarianism, Euthanasia, and Ethical Theories" »

Liberalism:

Individuals should have freedom to live their lives as they see fit. It is an idealist ideology, they know what is best for them. Choose what's best for you even though it isn't.

Strength:

Humans do best when allowed to make their own decisions, no one is able to say in certainty what is best for us, only I know what is best for me, humans are fallible.

Weakness:

Individual freedom may be an illusion since we are not as free as we might like to think. Many people are manipulated by corporate and government interests. Advertising.

Socialism:

Workers control the means of production and distribute profits according to need. Critical response to capitalism, tries to solve the unfair situation of the employees.

Strengths:

A fair distribution... Continue reading "Political Ideologies and Their Strengths and Weaknesses" »