Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Views on Human Nature and Law

There are many reasons why human nature and the purpose of laws exist. Thomas Hobbes believed human nature to be brutish and destructive; thus, the purpose of laws is to prevent such nature and maintain order. Hypothetically, an anti-violence law regulating society to prevent harm would align with Hobbes's views.

For Aristotle, human life is neither inherently good nor bad by nature; rather, upbringing determines social and political character. Nevertheless, Aristotle believed the purpose of laws is to encourage virtue. He would likely support laws aiding those in need, especially after natural disasters. For instance, the Model Act for Facilitation of International Disaster Relief and Recovery Assistance... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Law and Human Rights" »

This document details significant hominin fossil discoveries and the crucial milestones in human evolution, from early bipedalism to the development of complex thought and culture.

Notable Hominin Fossils and Their Characteristics

True or False

1. Space and time are forms of sensibility and objects given in intuitions. T
2. A unicorn is a simple idea, but horse and horn are complex as they result from sensations. F
3. For Descartes, the mind is an infinite substance trapped in the finite body. F
4. Since babies cannot count, quantity is learned and is not an a priori category of the understanding. T
5. Reflections, for Locke, are acts of the mind while sensation provides ideas of the external world. T
6. Kant believed self, cosmos, and God offer unity and completeness. T
7. Although Kant argued that minds move towards wholeness, the way the mind analyzes raw data differs by culture. T
8. While odor and taste are part of objects, motion depends on the observer. F
9. The word empiricism is derived from the

Foundations of Citizen Rights (Articles 18, 20, 21)

1. Defining the Individual Citizen (Article 20)

An individual is considered a citizen. One does not need to be economically active to rely on citizen rights; rights are gained upon birth in the EU.

2. Measuring Breaches of Rights (Articles 21, 18, 20)

• Right to Reside (Article 21): The right of residence exists but can be limited if the individual lacks sufficient resources.
• Non-Discrimination (Article 18): Protects against discrimination based on nationality. Once people have a residence permit, if they are not economically active, they can rely on Article 18 for social assistance.
• Students may request loans. Members States (MS) can require social integration but do not require settled status; this

Meaning of Insurance

Insurance is a form of contract under which one party (the Insurer or Insurance Company) agrees, in return for a consideration (the Insurance Premium), to pay an agreed sum of money to another party (the Insured) to compensate for a loss, damage, or injury to something of value in which the insured has a financial interest as a result of some uncertain event.

Core Principles of Insurance

Insurance contracts are governed by several fundamental principles:

1. Utmost Good Faith (Uberrimae Fidei)

   Insurance contracts are based upon mutual trust and confidence between the insurer and the insured. It is a condition of every insurance contract that both parties (the insurer and the insured) must disclose every material fact and information

The Philosophical Problem of Truth

Truth Concerning Reality: Appearance vs. Essence

The term “truth” can be identified here with true reality as opposed to mere appearance. The distinction between reality and appearance has been the subject of a long debate throughout the history of philosophy. This debate has often been dominated by the conception that appearances are concealments of reality.

Things are often not as they appear. For example, objects do not become smaller when they move away, and a stick does not bend when it is immersed in water. Appearances are deceptive and hide the true reality, since we cannot always see how things are in reality.

Truth Concerning Knowledge

The concept of truth can also be applied to propositions and knowledge... Continue reading "Defining Truth: Correspondence, Coherence, and Scientific Methods" »

Core Vocabulary: Social Action and Fundraising Terms

Activism and Protest Terminology

Activist:

Activista

Appeal:

Apelación

Attend a rally:

Asistir a un mitin

Banner:

Bandera

Campaign:

Campaña

Demonstrator:

Manifestante

Go on a march:

Ir en marcha

Petition:

Petición

Protest:

Protesta

Protester:

Manifestante

Rally:

Reunión / Mitin

Sign a petition:

Firmar una petición

Slogan:

Eslogan

Take part:

Tomar parte / Participar

Take part in a sit-in:

Participar en una sentada

Charity and Fundraising Vocabulary

Animal charity:

Caridad animal

Charity (Adjective):

Caritativo

Donation:

Donación

Donor:

Donante

Fundraising activity:

Actividad para recaudar dinero

Raise awareness of:

Crear conciencia de

Raise funds:

Recaudar fondos

Sponsor:

Patrocinador

Sponsorship:

Patrocinio

Sponsored walk:

Marcha benéfica

Volunteer:

The Rise of Advanced Robotic Arms

This article discusses robotic arms developed by companies such as Amazon and FedEx, capable of picking and sorting objects with human-like dexterity.

For years, engineers have strived to replicate the human capacity to grip and manipulate objects using robots. However, recent advancements in artificial intelligence, camera technology, and engineering now enable robots to "see" and dynamically adjust their grip on objects of varying sizes and shapes.

Critics express concern that this technology will lead to significant job losses. Others, however, raise different concerns, including the potential for higher worker injury rates or the need for stricter human surveillance to ensure production targets are met.

According... Continue reading "Robotic Arms and AI: Shaping the Future of Work" »

active:

Learning from Mistakes: Popper and Kuhn

Science progresses not by proving theories right, but by recognizing when our understanding of reality is false. Scientists actively try to disprove their theories.

• Induction: If you observe that it rains every Thursday for four weeks, you might conclude that it always rains on Thursdays.
• Science aims to avoid the problem of induction.
• Scientists propose a hypothesis and then test it, seeking evidence that could falsify it. If falsified, the hypothesis is rejected.
• Kuhn: Argued that there are no objective facts waiting to be discovered. Progress occurs through "paradigm shifts," where existing frameworks of thought are overturned.

The Runaway Train and the Unwanted Fiddler

These thought experiments by Philippa... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Concepts: From Popper to Singer" »