Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Theories of the Self and Personal Identity

Substance Theory – René Descartes

Substance theory argues that the self is a single, unified, and unchanging entity that persists over time. According to Descartes, the self is not physical but a mental substance that controls the body and mind, much like a captain steering a ship. This means that even though our experiences and surroundings change, the core “self” remains the same. The self is indivisible and cannot be broken down into parts or altered by experience. For example, a person is still the same individual from childhood to adulthood, even though their appearance, thoughts, and life circumstances have changed.

Bundle Theory – David Hume

Bundle theory claims that the self is not a single,... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on the Self and Divinity" »

1. C. Thi Nguyen: Echo Chambers and Epistemic Bubbles

Understanding Epistemic Bubbles

• Missing opposing views through omission.
• Caused by algorithms, selective exposure, and homogeneous friend networks.
• Effects: Poor informational coverage and inflated confidence.
• Solution: Adding missing information; exposure typically works.

The Nature of Echo Chambers

• Opposing views are actively discredited.
• Members hear outside information but reject it due to systemic distrust.
• Uses cult-like strategies: "outsiders = corrupt/evil"; "insiders = only trustworthy."
• Evidential pre-emption: Criticism is reframed as "proof" of a conspiracy.
• Much harder to escape; facts often backfire.

The Role of Trust

• Modern knowledge requires trusting experts, which creates inherent vulnerability.

Decision Making and Career Development

• Decision Making: A wise decision, be faced with, feel uncertain about, give priority to, have the freedom to, lose out, reach a decision, settle on, struggle, take advice, think over, weigh up.
• Professional Terms: Account, current, hands-on, invest, get a foot in the door, on the lookout, result in, suit.
• Career Path: Growing industry, pension plan, reference letter, starting salary, vacant position, be made redundant, be self-employed, get a promotion, health insurance, perks of the job, work overtime, be fired, board, lead, set, fold, point.

Financial Literacy and Time Management

• Finance: Allowance, balance, blessing, debit card, donate, fortune, income, live on, repay debt, savings, small change, wealthy.

4 Tactical Tasks: Learning From the Other Party

1. Assess the Other Party's Position

Assess the other party’s target, resistance point, and cost of terminating the negotiation (resistance and BATNA). There are two ways to do this:

• Direct assessment: Asking or observing directly.
• Indirect assessment: Analyzing external factors and behaviors.

2. Manage the Other Party's Impression

Manage the other party’s impression of your target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiations.

Screening Activities

• Concealing information: Keeping sensitive data like your target point, resistance point, and BATNA confidential.
• Calculated incompetence: Exploiting the other party's lack of knowledge by providing misleading information or negotiating with those

🧾 WRITTEN SPEECH STRUCTURE (IGCSE)

Even though it’s written, your speech should sound like someone could say it aloud — clear, persuasive, and engaging.
Here’s the ideal structure that Cambridge expects 👇

🩵 1. Introduction (Opening paragraph)

👉 Goal: grab attention + introduce topic + state your opinion.

Include:

• A greeting
  “Good morning everyone,” or “Ladies and gentlemen,”

• A hook — something interesting (a question, quote, or fact)
  “Have you ever wondered how technology is changing our lives?”

• Your main idea / purpose
  “Today, I want to talk about why we must use technology responsibly.”

Tips:

• Keep it short (3–4 lines max).

• Make the reader curious or emotionally engaged.

💬 2. Body (2–3 paragraphs)

👉 Goal: develop... Continue reading "Purpose and content of" »

OECD Corporate Governance Principles

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports.

• Rights and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders

  Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

• Interests of Other Stakeholders

  Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market-driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities,

Key Characteristics of Insurance Contracts

Insurance is bilateral and identifies both goods and people. There is a payment in exchange for covering risks, and it is subrogatory. It is formal in nature.

Parties Involved in the Policy

• Insurer
• Insured
• Policyholder
• Beneficiary

Formal Aspects and Policy Content

It is mandatory that the contract is in writing according to regulations. The policy must be drafted in the official languages of Spain. The content must include:

• Name, surname, or company name of the contracting parties, address, and assignment of the insured and the beneficiary.
• The concept in which it is insured.
• Nature of the risk covered.
• Designation of the insured object and its location.
• Sum insured and scope of coverage.
• Amount, surcharge, and

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment fostered a critical attitude among the intelligentsia and promoted the advancement of literacy among the population. This era saw significant societal shifts, including educational reforms and a surge in published works.

Educational and Literary Advancements

• Prussia introduced the world's first primary education system for boys and girls.
• In England, book publications dramatically increased from 21,000 in 1710 to 65,000 in 1790. Religious content was increasingly replaced by works of science, arts, philosophy, and literature.

Key Enlightenment Philosophers

While these achievements were significant, some Enlightenment thinkers believed they were insufficient, leading to radical critiques of the... Continue reading "Enlightenment Thinkers & Reformation's Impact on Society" »

Standard Call Greeting

"Carey Insurance, this is [Name], how may I help you?"

Agency Introductions

"I'm [Name], your service representative. I can handle billing questions, policy changes, cancellations, and more."

Call Transfer Protocols

If a caller is interested in new business or additional products like life insurance, say: "I'd be happy to transfer you to one of our risk managers, please hold."

• Action: Park the caller and contact the agent to confirm availability before transferring.

Handling Potential New Clients

For personal lines (e.g., home quotes), use the following alphabetical assignment:

• A–H: Mandi
• I–P: Veronica
• Q–Z: Olivia

Note: If an underwriter or carrier calls for a specific person, transfer them directly. Otherwise, follow the alphabetical

Identifying Common Logical Fallacies