Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Notes on the Tao of Pooh

"Pooh just is." He doesn’t think too much, worry, or plan.

The How of Pooh?

"The Vinegar Tasters": Confucians see the world as an imperfect place in need of being ordered by human beings. Buddhists see the world as a place full of suffering that should be rejected. Taoists see the world as a naturally harmonious place that should be embraced and enjoyed for what it is.

From the Taoist perspective, Confucian thinking is flawed because natural laws should be accepted and obeyed; attempts to impose an outside, artificial order only create conflict and discomfort. Being in harmony with natural laws leads to happy serenity.

The Tao of Who?

Those who think too intellectually or try too hard (too self-consciously), like Rabbit,... Continue reading "Tao of Pooh: Taoist Lessons in Simple Living and Harmony" »

Quiz 2: Metaphysics and Theology

1. Which thinker argued that our decision to believe in God is a matter of rational wager? Blaise Pascal
2. Which theologian attempted to reconcile Realism and Nominalism through Conceptualism? Pierre Abelard
3. Which philosopher developed the allegory of the cave? Plato
4. Who developed the argument from degrees of qualities? St. Thomas Aquinas
5. The arguments for the existence of God belong to which part of philosophy? Metaphysics
6. The Cosmological Argument was inspired by which ancient Greek philosopher? Aristotle
7. Which argument relies on a priori reasoning? Ontological Argument
8. Which opposition affects the status of universal concepts? Realism vs. Nominalism
9. Who is the author of the Cosmological Argument? St. Thomas Aquinas
10. Who

The Age of Reason and Intellectual Trends

The Enlightenment is a term used to describe the trends in thought and letters in Europe and the American colonies during the 18th century, prior to the French Revolution. The phrase was employed by writers of the period who were convinced they were emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into an Age of Reason.

Core Principles of Enlightenment Thought

During the Enlightenment, people believed that through reason, progress would be possible in several key areas:

• Knowledge and scientific understanding
• Technical achievements
• Moral and social values

There was a concerted attempt to supplant the aristocracy and established churches in social and political life, as these institutions were often viewed... Continue reading "The Age of Reason: Enlightenment and Political Change" »

Thomas Hobbes (17th Century)

In the opinion of many scholars, Thomas Hobbes stands as one of the first great political philosophers of modern times. His cultural antecedents were the Reformation and the Renaissance, movements which, despite their differences, shared a common thread: a yearning to return to origins. The Reformation challenged established religious traditions, while the Renaissance extolled the virtues of classical philosophy. However, these movements also engendered discord, particularly concerning religious authority, leading to widespread conflict. It was an era marked by ambiguity and the absence of clear authority.

Born amidst the tumult of civil war, Hobbes's philosophical outlook was profoundly shaped by this experience.... Continue reading "Thomas Hobbes and the Social Contract" »

Concept of International Society

The concept of International Society refers to a group of states that share common interests or values and participate in the maintenance of international institutions. It can be defined as the community of all nations and all people.

International Society vs. International Community

The International Community is a natural and spontaneous unity, whereas International Society is structured in an artificial way. In the community, ethical issues and common values prevail, while in the society, legal issues and legislation take precedence.

Fundamental Principles of International Society

• The International Common Good: Relations between actors must be guided by the universal common good—the good of all people. The purpose

Useful Expressions for Introductions

• Today, we are repeatedly confronted with the problem of…
• The general public focuses on the question of…
• …seems to be an inexhaustible source of controversy.
• …is a hotly debated topic at the moment.
• Recently, there has been heated controversy on the question of…
• The problem of… has met with a lot of attention lately.
• Therefore, one should discuss the issue, wonder about, or ask the question of whether…
• It is interesting to weigh up the benefits and drawbacks of…
• In the following, I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of…
• Politicians today believe or claim that…
• Some experts state that…
• Whether… will be discussed in the following.
• With this statement, the politician refers to…

Useful

The first similarity is that there are actors of only one kind: the relevant actors are individuals. In both cases, they have more or less equal powers. Obviously, this is not true in terms of countries, but anyone can harm another. They are dependent on each other. In both cases, you cannot trust the behavior of others. In fear of being killed, it is either kill or be killed: the most rational action is to kill first. The fifth similarity is that good and evil come after the social contract. International politics and relations are amoral: they lack morals.

MAX WEBBER “A STATE IS A MONOPOLY OF LEGITIMATE VIOLENCE IN A GIVEN TERRITORY”

There are three different ways to contemplate the relation between morals and war. The first one would be... Continue reading "Similarities and Differences: State of Nature of Individuals and States" »

Immanuel Kant (18th century)

Regarded as one of the greatest philosophers in history, he came up with a brilliant set of ideas which formed his philosophy. He made a distinction between material ethics and formal ethics. Material ethics try to change how humans are for what they ought to be using virtue as a tool for such a goal. The problem here for Kant is that humans do not usually agree on what they should be. Some humans look for happiness while others for saintliness, heroism, or pleasure. It is virtually impossible to reach a consensus on this matter. To solve this problem, Kant tries to provide a formula which he calls categorical imperative. He takes this imperative from the gospel: treat others the way you want yourself to be treated.

Philosophy vs. Science: A Fundamental Distinction

Science is the systematic study and understanding of natural or social phenomena. It is fundamentally concerned with empirical data—information that can be observed, tested, and repeated. A specific course of action, known as the scientific method, guides scientific inquiry.

The Historical Divergence of Science from Philosophy

Science originally started as a part of philosophy, known as natural philosophy. However, science significantly deviated from philosophy in the 17th century. When discussing science today, we typically consider three main branches: natural science, social science, and formal science.

Classification of Scientific Disciplines

Scientific disciplines are broadly classified into... Continue reading "Science and Philosophy: Origins, Evolution, and Modern Disciplines" »