Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Concept of International Society

The concept of International Society refers to a group of states that share common interests or values and participate in the maintenance of international institutions. It can be defined as the community of all nations and all people.

International Society vs. International Community

The International Community is a natural and spontaneous unity, whereas International Society is structured in an artificial way. In the community, ethical issues and common values prevail, while in the society, legal issues and legislation take precedence.

Fundamental Principles of International Society

• The International Common Good: Relations between actors must be guided by the universal common good—the good of all people. The purpose

Useful Expressions for Introductions

• Today, we are repeatedly confronted with the problem of…
• The general public focuses on the question of…
• …seems to be an inexhaustible source of controversy.
• …is a hotly debated topic at the moment.
• Recently, there has been heated controversy on the question of…
• The problem of… has met with a lot of attention lately.
• Therefore, one should discuss the issue, wonder about, or ask the question of whether…
• It is interesting to weigh up the benefits and drawbacks of…
• In the following, I will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of…
• Politicians today believe or claim that…
• Some experts state that…
• Whether… will be discussed in the following.
• With this statement, the politician refers to…

Useful

The first similarity is that there are actors of only one kind: the relevant actors are individuals. In both cases, they have more or less equal powers. Obviously, this is not true in terms of countries, but anyone can harm another. They are dependent on each other. In both cases, you cannot trust the behavior of others. In fear of being killed, it is either kill or be killed: the most rational action is to kill first. The fifth similarity is that good and evil come after the social contract. International politics and relations are amoral: they lack morals.

MAX WEBBER “A STATE IS A MONOPOLY OF LEGITIMATE VIOLENCE IN A GIVEN TERRITORY”

There are three different ways to contemplate the relation between morals and war. The first one would be... Continue reading "Similarities and Differences: State of Nature of Individuals and States" »

Immanuel Kant (18th century)

Regarded as one of the greatest philosophers in history, he came up with a brilliant set of ideas which formed his philosophy. He made a distinction between material ethics and formal ethics. Material ethics try to change how humans are for what they ought to be using virtue as a tool for such a goal. The problem here for Kant is that humans do not usually agree on what they should be. Some humans look for happiness while others for saintliness, heroism, or pleasure. It is virtually impossible to reach a consensus on this matter. To solve this problem, Kant tries to provide a formula which he calls categorical imperative. He takes this imperative from the gospel: treat others the way you want yourself to be treated.

Philosophy vs. Science: A Fundamental Distinction

Science is the systematic study and understanding of natural or social phenomena. It is fundamentally concerned with empirical data—information that can be observed, tested, and repeated. A specific course of action, known as the scientific method, guides scientific inquiry.

The Historical Divergence of Science from Philosophy

Science originally started as a part of philosophy, known as natural philosophy. However, science significantly deviated from philosophy in the 17th century. When discussing science today, we typically consider three main branches: natural science, social science, and formal science.

Classification of Scientific Disciplines

Scientific disciplines are broadly classified into... Continue reading "Science and Philosophy: Origins, Evolution, and Modern Disciplines" »

1. Think Like a Scientist

   When you start forming an opinion, resist the temptation to preach, prosecute, or politic. Treat your emerging view as a hunch or a hypothesis and test it with data.

2. Define Identity by Values, Not Opinions

   It’s easier to avoid getting stuck to your past beliefs if you don’t become attached to them as part of your present self-concept. See yourself as someone who values curiosity, learning, mental flexibility, and searching for knowledge. As you form opinions, keep a list of factors that would change your mind.

3. Seek Opposing Views

   An easy place to start is to follow people who make you think—even if you usually disagree with what they think.

4. Don't Confuse Confidence with Competence

   The better you think you are, the greater

The Biological Dimension of the Human Being

Non-Evolutionist Theories

Creationism

This theory asserts that the world and all living things were created by God from nothingness. This theory is the basis of many religious doctrines, not only of Christianity.

1. All living species were created separately by God from nothingness in the beginning of times. So they are not related nor derive ones from others.
2. God created mankind in his own image. So the human being plays a special role in the divine creation.

Fixism

Pseudo-scientific theory formulated by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) which states that species, both plant and animal, do not evolve, but remain unchanged in time. To explain the fact, as evidenced by the fossils, of the disappearance of certain species... Continue reading "Anthropology: Exploring the Biological, Cultural, and Philosophical Dimensions of Humanity" »

Causal Law

Scientific law that establishes a relationship between phenomena in such a way that if the phenomenon considered to be a cause takes place, the phenomenon that is considered to be an effect will also take place.

Cause

Event or action capable of producing or originating another different event, which is referred to as effect. Given that the cause of an event allows to explain a certain effect, the term is also used to refer to the reason for its taking place.

Chaos

Amorphous, undefined state that was supposed to occur before the cosmos existed. If the term “cosmos” refers to the ordered Universe, in Greek mythology the term “chaos” refers to the state of disarray that precedes the formation of the Universe. The term then evolved... Continue reading "Understanding Key Philosophical and Anthropological Concepts" »

Requirements for Permanent Employment

According to Law 51 of 2012, Article 6, permanent positions are reserved for Bahraini citizens and GCC nationals. Candidates must pass the required examination for the position, and the role must be budgeted and approved within the established staffing ceiling.

Probation Period for Public Service Employees

Per Article 12, all newly hired employees—excluding senior positions—are subject to a six-month probationary period starting from their commencement date.

Working Hours for Public Employees

Law 51 of 2012, Article 26, governs the working hours of government employees. Key provisions include:

• Employees are entitled to all public holidays with full salary and benefits.
• Working hours between 8:00 PM and 7:00