The Age of Reason: Enlightenment and Political Change

The Age of Reason and Intellectual Trends

The Enlightenment is a term used to describe the trends in thought and letters in Europe and the American colonies during the 18th century, prior to the French Revolution. The phrase was employed by writers of the period who were convinced they were emerging from centuries of darkness and ignorance into an Age of Reason.

Core Principles of Enlightenment Thought

During the Enlightenment, people believed that through reason, progress would be possible in several key areas:

• Knowledge and scientific understanding
• Technical achievements
• Moral and social values

There was a concerted attempt to supplant the aristocracy and established churches in social and political life, as these institutions were often viewed as reactionary, oppressive, and superstitious.

Religion and the Rise of Deism

Most Enlightenment thinkers did not renounce religion entirely; instead, they practiced Deism. This involved accepting God’s existence while rejecting traditional Christian theology. They often saw the established church (specifically the Roman Catholic Church) as the force that had enslaved the human mind in the past.

Key French Philosophers and Their Works

France was the homeland of the philosophes. It was there that Charles de Montesquieu, a political philosopher and jurist, published satirical works against institutions, such as the Persian Letters (1721), and his influential study of institutions, The Spirit of the Laws (1748).

Denis Diderot began the publication of the Encyclopédie (1751–1772). Many philosophers collaborated on this project, which was intended as both a compilation of knowledge and a polemical weapon.

Voltaire, the most influential and representative of the French writers, was known for his prolific pamphlets, essays, satires, and short novels. He maintained significant relationships with the monarchs of Europe and popularized science and philosophy.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author of The Social Contract, had a deep influence on later political and educational theory and served as a major impulse for the Romantic movement.

Enlightened Absolutism and the State

Most European monarchs adopted the ideas or vocabulary of the Enlightenment to some degree.

The Rise of Enlightened Despots

Voltaire and other philosophes, who understood the concept of an "enlightened philosopher king," spoke highly of the enlightened despots. These included Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria.

Enlightenment ideas were useful to these rulers for implementing various changes, including:

• Educational and judicial reform
• The modernization of bureaucracy
• Tolerance of religious dissidents
• The abolition of serfdom

However, monarchs often used this movement primarily to promote their own purposes and were frequently more despotic than they were enlightened.

The Philosophes and the Role of the State

The philosophes were united in their support of tolerance, the rule of law, social welfare, and secular education, as well as in their hostility toward privilege. They were not inherently opposed to the state; rather, they viewed the state as a perfect medium for the realization of their ideals, as long as the ruler respected reason and law.

In Europe and Italy, enlightened thinkers were interested in strengthening the state so it could perform its duties properly, rather than limiting its power. Throughout this process, they maintained a strong opposition to the traditional power of the church and the nobility.