Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Conservative Reformist: The Reign of Alfonso XIII

The age of Alfonso XIII began with a crisis caused by the disaster of '98 that led the dynastic parties to initiate a reform program for the regeneration of Spanish political life. The conservative governments of Antonio Maura tried, until 1909, some reforms of finance, local government, and the electoral law, but this attempt was a failure. While Turno parties were losing influence, the opposition grew stronger:

• The Republicans increased their electoral ascendancy with the creation of the European Radical Republican Party.
• The Catalan nationalist groups reached a broad electoral victory, thanks to the Catalan Solidarity.
• Socialism and trade unions (UGT) consolidated their presence in Madrid,

Key Historical Events: US and French Revolutions

United States

The US Constitution

The Constitution is the set of fundamental laws of a nation. The US Constitution, based on the ideas of Rousseau and Montesquieu, developed the first declaration of human rights. The new country was a presidential and federal republic.

The Boston Tea Party

In 1773, in Boston, a cargo of tea was thrown into the sea. It was an act of protest by American colonists against Britain, and that event sparked the War of Independence of the United States.

George Washington

Military General George Washington was the first US President and Commander of the Continental Army of the revolutionary forces in the War of Independence of the United States. Washington began to win trophies,... Continue reading "Key Historical Events: US & French Revolutions" »

The Glorious Revolution of 1868: A New Era in Spain

Introduction

In September 1868, a new pronouncement spearheaded by the army marked a turning point in Spanish history, setting the stage for significant political change. Generals Serrano and Prim, along with Admiral Topete, initiated a revolt in Cadiz that rapidly spread throughout the nation. The queen was exiled to France following the Battle of Alcolea. This revolution, known as the Glorious, represented a renewed effort by the bourgeoisie and a large segment of the populace to establish a democratic system.

Causes of the Revolution

• Social crisis in Andalusia, characterized by a series of peasant revolts led by landless individuals.
• Political crisis, marked by a succession of moderate and unionist

The 1869 Spanish Constitution

A) Promulgated in June 1869, this new constitution, both democratic and monarchist, remained in effect until 1873, when the First Republic was proclaimed (1873-1874).

B) This was the first truly democratic constitution in Spain. It established a monarchy based on the principle of national sovereignty. It included a comprehensive bill of rights and freedoms, not covered by previous constitutions, such as the right of assembly and association, trial by jury, direct universal suffrage for men over 25, and freedom of worship.

C) The constitution was based on the principles of division of powers and decentralization. The Cortes, composed of two co-legislative chambers—the Congress of Deputies and the Senate—elected... Continue reading "1869 Spanish Constitution: Democratic Principles & Impact" »

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

1.1 Two Opposing Factions

The rebels, proclaiming King Charles, Count of Molina, as their leader, trusted him to defend absolutism and traditional society. This ignited a long civil war, pitting defenders of the Old Regime against proponents of liberal reform.

Carlism represented a traditionalist and anti-liberal ideology. It championed absolute monarchy, the preservation of the Old Regime, the social preeminence of the Church, and the conservation of the particularist *fueros* (regional privileges) system.

Its supporters included many members of the clergy and a significant portion of the rural gentry. Carlist strongholds were primarily in the Basque Country, Navarre, and parts of Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia,... Continue reading "First Carlist War: A Clash of Ideologies (1833-1840)" »

19th Century Spain

French War

Under the pretext of a French invasion of Portugal, and with Spain poised to support Napoleon, Joseph Bonaparte was installed as head of the Spanish government. Napoleon returned to legitimize the Catalan flag.

In 1812, the liberal Constitution of Cadiz (also known as "La Pepa") was ratified. This marked a significant shift away from absolutism towards a more representative government, granting voting rights to a segment of the population (primarily the bourgeoisie).

Fall of Napoleon and the Restoration

Napoleon's empire fell to the absolutist powers of Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia. These powers formed the Holy Alliance to suppress liberal revolts across Europe.

The monarchy was restored in Spain with the arrival... Continue reading "19th Century Spain: From Absolutism to Revolution" »

Italian Unification

The Risorgimento, or Italian Unification, developed in three phases:

First Phase (1849-1860)

Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, King of Sardinia, directed the unification process. He counted on the assistance of his Prime Minister, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour. Sardinia allied with France to combat Austria, which was defeated in the battles of Magenta and Solferino. France allied with Austria, and Piedmont only received Lombardy. In 1860, Parma, Modena, and Romagna voted in a parliament to join Piedmont. These common areas were dominated by Victor Emmanuel II, who called it the Italian Parliament.

Second Phase (1860-1865)

This phase saw the incorporation of Sicily. Cavour had the support of Giuseppe Garibaldi, a Republican and nationalist.... Continue reading "Italian and German Unification: A Historical Timeline" »

5. The War Overseas
Exploded in Cuba in 1895, a new insurrection that joined the rebellion in the Philippines.
Causes of conflict in Cuba:
Political inequality between Spanish and Cuban
Protectionism of the metropolis that prevents the development of the Cuban economy
Maintenance of slavery in force until 1888.
As we discussed, in 1868, Cuba had exploded in a revolution that lasted until 1878. Cuba was the first war with U.S. support, ending with the Zanjón Peace, negotiated by General Martínez Campos with the rebels, who promised broad autonomy and a series of reforms. However, the delay in implementing the agreement brought about a new conflict against the Spanish presence on the island: the Small War in 1879, which was defeated the... Continue reading "The Impact of the Spanish-American War on Cuba and the Philippines" »

Inventions

The first agglomerations appeared (First Chicago Skyline).

• Telegraph (1793, Morse)
• Telephone (1876, Alexander Graham Bell)
• Light Bulb (1879, Edison)
• Electric Iron (1882, Seeley)
• Cinema (1890, Lumiere Brothers)
• Radio (1901, Marconi)
• Automobiles (1886, Carl Benz)

Colonialism

Causes:

• Need to find new markets after the Industrial Revolution.
• Need to sell products to countries beyond their own production.
• Need to buy raw materials at the best price (coal, steel, cotton, etc.).

The main cause of colonialism was economic, but there were also social, political, and military factors:

• Strategic footholds for constructing canals and railways to monitor and exploit trade routes.
• Population increase: Millions of Europeans needed to migrate to other territories.

Aragon's Historical Institutions

The Aragonese government institutions included:

• Monarchy: The king, a tradition rooted in practical governance, was committed to respecting the institutions, laws, and customs of the states. A representative, such as a lieutenant or viceroy, often acted on the King's behalf.
• Cortes: Each kingdom had its own Cortes (parliament). The King needed their consent, especially when requesting funds. The General Council monitored compliance with approved measures.
• Municipalities: Commercial development empowered the bourgeoisie.

Aragon's Economy

Aragon's economy was primarily based on agriculture and livestock, especially sheep farming. Irrigated agriculture thrived, along with crafts and manufacturing. Aragonese trade routes... Continue reading "Aragon's History: Government, Economy, Art, and Humanism" »