19th Century Spain: From Absolutism to Revolution

19th Century Spain

French War

Under the pretext of a French invasion of Portugal, and with Spain poised to support Napoleon, Joseph Bonaparte was installed as head of the Spanish government. Napoleon returned to legitimize the Catalan flag.

In 1812, the liberal Constitution of Cadiz (also known as "La Pepa") was ratified. This marked a significant shift away from absolutism towards a more representative government, granting voting rights to a segment of the population (primarily the bourgeoisie).

Fall of Napoleon and the Restoration

Napoleon's empire fell to the absolutist powers of Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia. These powers formed the Holy Alliance to suppress liberal revolts across Europe.

The monarchy was restored in Spain with the arrival of Ferdinand VII, who revoked the Constitution of Cadiz, causing widespread discontent.

Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

General Riego led a coup in Andalusia, forcing Ferdinand VII to accept a new liberal constitution. Riego became a national hero, and a song celebrating his actions later became the anthem of the Second Republic.

This period of liberal rule lasted only three years due to the intervention of the Holy Alliance, which reinstated absolutism. During this time, Spain lost most of its American colonies.

The Carlist Wars

Ferdinand VII died without a male heir, leaving his daughter Isabella as the heir presumptive. However, the Salic Law prevented female rulers. Before his death, Ferdinand enacted the Pragmatic Sanction to allow his daughter to inherit the throne.

Infuriated, the king's brother, Carlos, claimed the throne, initiating the First Carlist War.

Meanwhile, the queen regent (Maria Cristina) cultivated a liberal image for Isabella to garner support. The Carlists eventually agreed to a settlement that allowed the Basque Country to maintain its economic and financial autonomy.

The Industrial Revolution

Factories began to emerge, centralizing production and concentrating workers, leading to increased efficiency. This period also marked the beginning of increased global warming.

In Spain, industrialization was concentrated in Catalonia (textiles), the Basque Country (steel and metallurgy), and Asturias (coal). Protectionist laws were enacted to shield these nascent industries from competition with stronger French and British manufacturers.

Catalonia's trade with Cuba and Puerto Rico flourished, fueling further industrial growth. However, the lack of coal in Catalonia led to high import costs from the UK, prompting the region to source coal from Asturias, despite transportation challenges.

From 1840 onwards, a new movement emerged, characterized by the destruction of factories by workers who felt threatened by machines (Luddism). Catalonia began to establish trade with Africa, while the UK focused on the United States.

From Absolutism to Liberalism

• Moderate Stage (1834-1837): A Royal Statute was introduced. Growing social unrest led to urban disturbances (bullangues), notably one sparked by a bullfighter that resulted in the burning of churches. Socialist and revolutionary movements like the Pink Fire emerged.
• Progressive Stage (1837-1843): A coup led to a more liberal constitution, and Mendizábal became prime minister. He replaced the Royal Statute with a new constitution and initiated the sale of church lands to generate revenue for the state. Tensions within the progressive movement led to Espartero replacing Mendizabal and assuming the position of regent. Barcelona was bombarded in response to a workers' and bourgeois revolt sparked by Espartero's free trade treaty with England, which negatively impacted Catalan industry.
• Moderate Stage (1843-1854): Narvaez led a moderate coup, reforming the constitution to be more conservative, curtailing individual rights. Spain was declared a Catholic state, and the Guardia Civil was established.
• Progressive-Moderate Stage (1854-1856): Also known as the Progressive Biennium, this period saw a group of moderates supporting Espartero's return to leadership. The Madoz Law was enacted, initiating a second round of land seizures, this time targeting municipal lands. The labor movement continued to gain strength.
• Moderate Stage (1856-1868): O'Donnell, the Minister of Defense, staged a coup and formed the Liberal Union, aiming to unite progressives and moderates. This period saw a decrease in coups as the bourgeoisie sought to control the working class. Spain pursued an active foreign policy, particularly in Mexico, South Africa, and Morocco. General Prim gained prominence.
• Democratic Period (1868-1874): Known as the Sexenio Democrático, this era began with the Glorious Revolution, which overthrew the Liberal Union. A new liberal constitution was established, introducing universal male suffrage and significant individual rights. Isabella II was deposed, and the search for a new king led to Amadeus of Savoy. Amadeus faced numerous challenges after Prim's assassination and eventually abdicated amidst renewed Carlist activity. In 1872, the First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.

Estanislao Figueras became the first president of the republic but was quickly overthrown due to cantonalist conflicts and Carlist uprisings. Pi i Margall, who advocated for a federal republic, also fell from power due to opposition from liberals. Salmerón assumed power and implemented repressive measures, including attempting to reinstate the death penalty, but resigned before its approval due to widespread opposition. Castelar succeeded him, approved the death penalty, and was subsequently ousted for being too conservative. General Pavia's coup in 1874 ended the six years of democracy.

The Economy of 19th Century Spain

• Demographics: Catalonia's population doubled, and Barcelona experienced significant urbanization, prompting Cerdà's urban development plan. This growth led to an increase in both workers and consumers, boosting trade.
• Primary Sector: The primary sector suffered a significant decline, with crises affecting grain and vineyards, key products in Catalonia alongside olives. Many farmers lost their livelihoods due to the breakdown of medieval land tenure contracts and resistance to new landowners. This led to the formation of the Unió de Rabassaires, a peasant union.