Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Monarchy of Alfonso XIII

It was necessary to regenerate the political, economic, and social legislation since the Canovista restoration had already lapsed. Economically backward, the domain of agriculture, the industry was in its infancy. Gradually, industrialization appeared alongside the middle class and urban proletariat.

In politics, the parliamentary system was based on the fictional rotating government of Liberal and Conservative parties, decided by the king.

Rise to the Throne of Alfonso XIII

In 1902, at age 16, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. He continued to rule with the peaceful shift of the two major parties.

They devised the "revolution from above" that dealt with the financial restructuring of state, social reforms through... Continue reading "Alfonso XIII's Reign in Spain: Politics and Social Change" »

Charles I: Rise and Rebellions

Charles I, son of Archduke Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile, and grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, arrived in Spain around 1516. The courts of Valladolid demanded he learn Castilian. Upon Maximilian's death, Charles was elected Emperor of Germany, a decision unpopular in Castile. To fund his trip to Germany, he requested money from the court, promising changes and vowing not to appoint foreigners to prominent positions in his absence. He failed to keep his promises, leading to discontent and serious disturbances. Toledo initiated the formation of Comunidades, which created their own army to support the rebels. The Santa Junta was formed in 1520. Villalar was defeated in 1521, and its leaders (Padilla,

From Tsarist Russia to the Soviet Union

The Decline of Absolutism and the Rise of Marxism

In the nineteenth century, Tsarist Russia was dominated by absolutism and remained a predominantly agricultural country. However, starting in 1870, significant industries began to develop in major cities. It was here that the ideas of Marxism took root, and the Social Democratic Party gained considerable strength. The Tsarist system resisted any attempts at change and reform. Nicholas II only granted a parliament after the revolution of 1905.

The 1917 Revolutions and the Rise of the Bolsheviks

The catastrophe of the Russian army in World War I led to the revolution of February 1917. Russia became a republic, and a provisional government was formed. However,... Continue reading "Tsarist Russia to Stalin: A Transformation" »

The Contenders

Initially, the primary participants were the countries of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The Triple Alliance, initially comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, was eventually limited to the Central Powers, with the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joining. Italy, despite its initial alignment, ultimately joined the Allies. The Entente, also known as the Allies, included Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Japan, and the United States. Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, Albania, and the Nordic nations remained neutral.

Phases

War of Movement (1914)

The initial phase saw the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, a German strategy to advance through Belgium and encircle the French army. The Battle of the Marne... Continue reading "World War I: Contenders, Phases, and Aftermath" »

The Moderate Decade in Spain (1844-1854)

The Moderate Decade (1844-54) saw moderate progressives commissioned to dismantle the old regime, succeeding the liberal regime. Donoso Cortes emerged as the key theorist of conservatism during this period.

Stabilization and Constitutional Reform

The primary goal was to stabilize the new order by reforming the Constitution of 1837. Under Narváez, reforms focused on limiting press freedoms through censorship and establishing a centralized administration that granted greater power to the crown. The National Militia was disbanded, and the Civil Guard was created in 1844. The current ministerial organization dates back to this era.

Judicial and Legal Framework

The Supreme Court was established as the apex of... Continue reading "The Moderate Decade in Spain: Consolidation and Reform (1844-1854)" »

Al-Andalus: Economy, Society, and Culture

In cities that developed thriving crafts, there was significant foreign trade, and the circulation of money was plentiful. The city of Córdoba was the economic hub and largest cultural center, and Al-Andalus became the largest city in Western Europe.

Ethnic Plurality and Cultural Splendor

The Muslim majority was divided into different ethnic groups, which were equal before the law but occupied different social positions.

• Privileged group: Jassa (those with Arab ancestry) who owned most of the domains.
• Berbers and Muladi (Hispanic converts to Islam).
• Jews.
• Mozarabs: They had a heavier tax burden and were Hispanic Christians.

This created an extensive network of schools and universities, and scientific development... Continue reading "Al-Andalus & Early Christian Kingdoms: Society & Culture" »

The Illustration: The Powers of the State

Division of Powers - First President of the First Government Junta

Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1810. The First Government Junta in 1823. Bernardo O'Higgins renounced free trade with the allied nations of Spain. This is related to the *Good Air* board. New military units were created, the *Real Audiencia* was abolished, and a National Congress was convened.

First National Congress (July 4, 1811)

The First National Congress was considered only temporary because many of its members did not want the independence of Chile. Freedom of the womb was created by José Miguel Carrera.

José Miguel Carrera's Government

Carrera created *The Aurora of Chile*, directed by Fray Camilo Henríquez. The 1812 Constitutional Regulations... Continue reading "Chilean History: Independence to the Portalian Solution" »

Napoleon's Defeat and the Reorganization of Europe

Napoleon was defeated by the British, Prussians, Austrians, and Russians. Trade wars with England led to mutually imposed blockades. The invasion of Russia marked the beginning of Napoleon's defeats, with many French soldiers dying from the cold.

The victorious powers reorganized the European map and restored the old regime at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).

Artigas and the Eastern Province

1811: The Eastern Band lifted the campaign against Montevideo. Artigas, initially hesitant, joined the uprising against Montevideo with the support of Buenos Aires.

May 18, 1811: Battle of Las Piedras (The Stones).

Following the triumph at Las Piedras, the siege of Montevideo began. Artigas and Rondeau besieged... Continue reading "Napoleon's Defeat and the Rise of Independence Movements" »

Item 15: The Franco Era (1939-1975)

Introduction

The rebel victory in April 1939 marked the establishment of a dictatorship that lasted 36 years. It evolved and adapted to new domestic and international situations.

Two main stages can be distinguished:

• The first, until 1959, was marked by the establishment of an authoritarian state, strong suppression that swept away liberal democratic achievements, and economic self-sufficiency that brought famine and hardship for most of the population.
• The second phase, from 1959 to 1975, was characterized by economic development and an attempt to institutionalize a regime that was intended to be a rule of law. With the 1973 oil crisis, the agony of the regime was accentuated, and its opponents multiplied.

The... Continue reading "Franco's Dictatorship in Spain: 1939-1975" »

Relationship Between Warlordism and Agricultural Venezuela

The dominance of agricultural activities in the economic structure (1830-1926), and hence the existence of thousands of laborers, enfeoffed, miserable, and desperate, allowed local chiefs and warlords to easily find their recruitment base and support to initiate movements, endangering the political system and destabilizing the existing government. Caudillism, to exist, requires an underdeveloped, peasant society without a strong central power.

Relationship Between Federalism and Centralism

Federalism is a type of government (political doctrine) that is formed by several agencies, such as states and trade unions, which give support to the central government to make various decisions. Centralization,... Continue reading "Warlordism, Federalism, and Landowners in Venezuela" »