Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The 19th Century Industrial Revolution in Europe

The 19th century in Europe witnessed a large industrial and political development, along with advancements in boat technology and the steam railway, as well as electricity. This was also the period of consolidation of constitutional liberal states, the rise of Italy and Germany, the expansion of the labor movement, improvements in living standards, and demographic growth. All of this, together with scientific and technological progress, led to a new industrial revolution, which can be divided into two stages of early development and industrialization marked by transformations.

The crowd favors momentum as industrializing powers seek new markets and sources of raw materials. For reasons of national... Continue reading "19th Century Industrial Revolution: Key Developments & Art" »

The Reign of Alfonso XII and the Restoration System

Alfonso XII was declared of age in 1902. The Restoration system remained in place at the beginning of his reign, but it began to face a crisis in 1917, leading to a military dictatorship and eventually the fall of the monarchy.

Regenerationist Policies and Internal Conflicts

Between 1902 and 1917, two new leaders, Antonio Maura (Conservative) and Jose Canalejas (Liberal), attempted to implement regenerationist policies to address the problems of the Restoration system. However, their efforts to end despotism and implement social improvements were unsuccessful.

The Tragic Week in Barcelona (1909) was a major internal conflict during this period. It was sparked by the mobilization of reservists... Continue reading "The Fall of the Spanish Monarchy: The End of the Restoration System" »

Consequences of World War II

Territorial Impact

• The Soviet Union expanded its territory, annexing parts of Poland, Romania, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
• Poland gained territory from Germany but became landlocked.
• Italy ceded territories to Yugoslavia and Greece, recognized Albania's independence, and relinquished its African colonies.
• Germany and Berlin were divided into four occupation zones.
• Austria was also divided into four occupation zones due to its support of Germany.
• Japan lost islands to the Soviet Union and the U.S. and came under U.S. command.

Demographic Consequences

• Millions died, were wounded, or went missing, with the highest number of civilian casualties.
• The Nazi extermination of Jews resulted in millions of deaths.
• New borders

Conquest and Colonization of America

The conquest and colonization of America was a relatively short process, facilitated by the very population that was willing. Factors included the possession of firearms and horses, and greater technological readiness.

The Aztec Empire was conquered first, subsequently the Antilles, Maya, and Inca, and from 1550, territories of North America were occupied.

Colonization

America was conveyed to the laws of Castile and treated on equal legal terms. Peninsular institutions were also created, as well as:

• The House of Trade in Seville, which controlled trade with America.
• The Council of the Indies.
• Viceroyalties: Territories ruled by a viceroy of New Spain and Mexico-Peru-Lima.

Trade

The sixteenth century experienced a... Continue reading "America's Conquest & Colonization: A Deep Dive" »

The Constitutional Process

Within weeks of his election, the courts began the work for drafting the Constitution. The Cortes in 1977 immediately became Constituent Cortes.

A Constitutional Commission was elected, and seven members were chosen to produce a first draft of the constitutional text. These seven members, the "fathers of the constitution," were Gabriel Cisneros, Miguel Herrero de Mignon, and José Pedro Pérez Llorca (UCD); Gregorio Peces-Barba (PSOE); Pauline Julien (PCE); Miquel Roca, representing Catalan and Minority PNV; and Manuel Fraga (AP). The absence of a representative of the PNV, linked to the question of "historical rights," had serious consequences because the main Basque nationalist party ultimately did not support the... Continue reading "Crafting Spain's Constitution: A Story of Consensus and Autonomy" »

The French War (1808-1814)

These events led to the popular rebellion, and on 2 May 1808, there was an uprising in Madrid against the French troops. This example was followed in many other places. Boards were created to lead the resistance, coordinated by a Board of Supreme Central, while patriotic groups organized into guerrillas to fight the French.

Las Cortes de Cadiz

The abdications in Bayonne left a power vacuum, because King Joseph I never gained acceptance from the Spanish people. So, in 1810, the Central Board convened a meeting of parliament in the city of Cadiz, the only territory not occupied by the French. The first decision by the Parliament was revolutionary: all present, whatever their origin, gathered in a single House and their... Continue reading "Spanish History: French War, Cadiz Cortes, Absolutism & Liberal Triennium" »

Economic Recovery in Franco's Spain

The new measures boosted the economy. The economic growth meant an annual increase in GDP of 4.5% between 1951 and 1957, a rate higher than any other European country at the time, with the exception of Germany and Italy.

In the same years, foreign trade increased tenfold.

Despite this, up to 1954, per capita income did not match the existing levels before the Civil War. The standard of living of the majority of the population did not rise significantly because the development was based on an abundant supply of cheap labor and the migration of rural workers to urban centers.

Social Developments During the Franco Regime

The Social Dynamic

The dictatorship was able to increase the support of the population, but the... Continue reading "Spain's Economic and Social Shifts Under Franco's Rule" »

Humanism and the Renaissance

Humanism was a movement of cultural rebirth that originated in Italy in the 15th century. Its main features include:

• Based on classical culture
• Interest in the human being
• Consideration of the human being as the center of the world

Humanism spread thanks to printing, academies, and universities.

The Renaissance can be divided into two main phases:

• Quattrocento (1400-1500): Applied to Italian art.
• Cinquecento (1500-1600):

The main features of Renaissance art are:

• Separation of art from the church
• Inspiration from Greek and Roman art
• Artworks taking the human being as a reference

The Reformation

Issues of Lutheranism

• Christians are saved by faith.
• All believers have equal access to God.
• Two sacraments are recognized.
• The scriptures

The Congress of Vienna:
In 1815 Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo, the victorious powers were now rearrange the map of Europe. To this end, Congress was held in Vienna, which proposed two things:
Restore the old regime (it was decided to pursue any revolutionary attempt, and signed the "Holy Alliance." Anyway, the restoration could not occur with equal force in all European countries because Western countries were more permeable the Orientals to the ideas of the Revolution and Napoleon. Therefore, when Louis XVIII restored to him the throne of the Bourbons in France, kept the Napoleonic codes, the abolition of feudalism, and even promised to govern with an absolute moderate: it was the regime of the Letter Issued. The system of CO has been... Continue reading "Congress of Vienna: Europe's Order After Napoleon" »