Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key EU Treaties: SEA, Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice

The founding treaties of the European Union were amended with two distinct purposes:

• Horizontal Extension: To increase the number of Member States.
• Vertical Extension: To increase the number of powers transferred to the communities.

A major reform in this regard resulted from two pivotal treaties, effectively forming a single, comprehensive reform: the Single European Act (SEA) of 1986 and the Treaty on European Union (TEU) of 1992. This period marked a significant turning point for the European Union. These treaties not only increased and strengthened the powers of economic integration but also introduced political cooperation, all wrapped up in the newly formed EU. This represented a substantial... Continue reading "Evolution of the European Union: Key Treaties and Enlargements" »

The Political Model of the Second Republic

Left-Wing Parties

This category includes Republican parties, those supporting regional autonomy, and workers' parties.

Bourgeois Left-Wing Republican Parties

• Republican Action: Founded by Manuel Azaña, this party comprised leftist intellectuals. Its political ideology centered on the modernization of social and political structures. During the first two years of the Republic, it collaborated closely with the PSOE.
• Radical Socialist Party: Created by Marcelino Domingo, its ideology was very similar to Republican Action. Domingo served as Minister of Public Instruction. This party later merged with Republican Action and ORGA to form Republican Left.
• Republican Union: Founded by Diego Martínez Barrio after

Economic Changes in Spain (1833-1875)

The Spanish population increased due to a decline in mortality and sustained high fertility rates. Most of the population remained rural, with 80% living in rural areas.

Agricultural Reform

Agriculture underwent significant reform, including the abolition of the feudal regime, the abolition of primogeniture, and the confiscation of lands by Mendizábal and Madoz. Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, Minister of Finance, initiated the confiscation of church property and land in 1836, dissolving religious orders. This confiscation involved the expropriation and nationalization of disentailed properties, followed by public auctions.

Secularization had three main objectives: to pay off financial debt, to expand the political... Continue reading "Spanish Economic Transformation: 1833-1875" »

The Boston Tea Party: A Defining Protest

The Boston Tea Party, referred to in its time simply as "the destruction of the tea" or by other informal names (and only formally named "Boston Tea Party" half a century later), was a political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, a city in the British colony of Massachusetts. This act of defiance was directed against the tax policy of the British government and the East India Company, which controlled all the tea imported into the colonies. The incident remains an iconic event of American history, frequently referenced by other political protests.

Governor Hutchinson's Stance and Escalation

Protesters had successfully prevented the unloading of taxed tea in three other colonies. However, in Boston,... Continue reading "The Boston Tea Party: Origins and Impact on American Revolution" »

French Revolution Key Questions

• c. What did the Third Estate of the States General claim?

  It claimed voting by head (per individual) rather than by order (per estate), meaning each representative would have one vote.

• d. When was the National Assembly formed? What was its main goal?

  It was formed on June 17, 1789. Its main goal was established by the Tennis Court Oath: not to disband until a constitution for France was drafted.

• e. Who were the sans-culottes?

  The sans-culottes were the common people of the lower classes in late 18th-century France, many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution. They were often associated with radical clubs like the Jacobins.

• f. Who were the Girondins and the Jacobins?

  The Girondins were

Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics

With the Liberals in power, Alfonso did not accept Monet's proposal. However, he did not remove the power and gutters imposed on power. This undertaking involved measures against the church and the army to avoid angering them. The liberal period sought more openness on social and individual matters, removing the tax on consumption and implementing universal conscription for war. The government attempted to control the church, leading Maura to attempt to break the cycle.

Regarding the text, it can be said that they are liberal. The Conservative government opposed the law of the lock, arguing it would create more church groups. Conservatives complained because they desired more freedom for the church, as... Continue reading "Spanish Liberal and Conservative Politics: A Historical Analysis" »

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

The War of the Spanish Succession began with the invasion of Spain by the armies of Great Britain and Austria, aiming to depose Philip V. Initially, Philip faced defeats in most battles.

Early Campaigns and Key Events

• In 1704, British forces attacked and conquered Gibraltar.
• Archduke Charles took Catalonia in 1705 and even entered Madrid, proclaiming himself the new king.
• However, in 1711, Emperor Joseph I of the Holy Roman Empire died, and his brother, Archduke Charles, became the new Emperor, Charles VI.
• Nations supporting Charles did not wish for a single monarch to hold both the Spanish and Holy Roman Imperial crowns, reminiscent of Charles V. Consequently, they began to withdraw their support.

The

Canova System 8.1

The 1868 defeat of the revolution did not bring a stable monarchy. The social problem and political awareness among the public to participate in consolidation were missing.
A real middle class was missing. A group of citizens and the authorities appeared separated from the group. This was called the reinstatement period.

The Meaning of the Regime of the Restoration

After the coup, General Pavia, on January 3, 1874, headed the government of General Serrano and made an effort to end the Carlist war.
Alfonso XII, upon turning 17 years old on December 1, opened the Declaration of National Certificate of the Sandhurst Military Academy. The traditional monarchy re-established in Spain was to solve the problems at the end of... Continue reading "Canova System 1876: Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain" »

Abraham Lincoln: A Legacy of Leadership

Early Life and Political Career

Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) served as the 16th president of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He rose from humble beginnings on the Western frontier, largely self-educated, to become a country lawyer, Illinois state legislator, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives. Despite setbacks in his early political career, including two unsuccessful attempts at a seat in the United States Senate, Lincoln's determination and leadership qualities eventually propelled him to the highest office in the land.

Presidency and the American Civil War

Lincoln's presidency was defined by the American... Continue reading "Exploring North American History and Culture: From Abraham Lincoln to Famous Figures" »

The following text is a minute from the decree written by Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, the head of government (a Spanish economist and politician, liberal progressive), addressed to the regent Maria Cristina during the minority of her daughter. It explains the desamortizador process.

Objectives of the Confiscation

The main theme of this decree is to explain the objectives of the confiscation. The primary goal of selling state-owned assets was to fulfill a promise and reduce the national debt. Secondary objectives included:

• Economic development
• Facilitating property ownership
• Boosting commerce and industry

Significance of the Confiscation

The confiscation of church lands was a key element of the liberal revolution and had significant economic and social... Continue reading "Mendizabal's Confiscation: Political, Legal, and Economic Impact" »