Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

19th Century Spain: A Historical Overview

The nineteenth century began with Napoleon's invasion in 1808, sparking a popular uprising and the War of Independence (1808-1814). King Ferdinand VII returned after the war and restored absolute monarchy. Disputes between absolutists (supporters of the king's full powers) and liberals (defending national sovereignty and civil liberties) were constant.

Many intellectuals were exiled to Europe, leading to a period of cultural decline. Upon the king's death, returning émigrés significantly contributed to the rise of Romanticism in Spain. The Carlist War, fought between Charles (the king's brother) and Elizabeth II (the victor), resulted in the triumph of liberal thought, which then divided into moderate

December 1937 to November 1938: The Battle of Teruel

The Republicans initiated a campaign to recover Teruel. It was a long battle; the city was occupied and then reconquered by the Franco regime. The wear suffered by the Republicans allowed the Nationalist forces to reach into Aragon and Valencia, arriving at Vinaroz on the Mediterranean coast. The Republican area was divided in two, and the Republicans were against the ropes. They hoped that the meeting in Munich between France, England, Hitler, and Mussolini would result in intervention against Germany and Italy, stopping aid to the Nationalist side.

The last major Republican offensive resulted in the Battle of the Ebro in July 1938. With more than 100,000 dead, it was the bloodiest battle... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Teruel & Ebro Battles to Catalonia's Fall" »

Alfonso XIII's Manifesto: The Fall of the Spanish Monarchy

This text is of a political and historical nature. The author is Alfonso XIII, and his manifesto was published by the newspaper ABC, a monarchist publication founded in 1902 by Torcuato Luca de Tena. The manifesto was released on April 17, 1931, just five days after the municipal elections and three days after the proclamation of the Second Republic. This period marked the fall of the monarchy, which had been anticipated.

The monarchy's decline began with the waning of the Primo de Rivera regime, a period known as the "Dictablanda" (soft dictatorship). The monarchy's downfall was caused by various pre-existing problems, but the final straw was the failure of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship.... Continue reading "Alfonso XIII's Manifesto: The Fall of the Monarchy" »

The French Revolution: A Transformative Era

The question was important: what was at stake was the idea of national sovereignty. The monarch and part of the nobility only accepted the dual representation, and the deputies of the Third Estate were erected in the National Assembly and pledged to draw up a constitution that reflected the will of the majority of the French.

The End of the Old Regime

The people of Paris supported the representatives of the Third Estate in the streets. They assaulted the Bastille, took up arms, and were available to defend the revolutionary process by force. The revolution also extended to the field in the form of an anti-feudal rebellion (The Great Fear). Given the popular radicalization, the National Constituent Assembly... Continue reading "French Revolution: From Monarchy to Republic" »

World War II (1939-1945)

1. Causes of World War II

1.1 Expansionist Policies of Nazi Germany

Following Hitler's rise to power, Germany left the League of Nations in 1933, signaling its rejection of the international order. This mirrored Japan's actions after its 1931 attack on China, which drew condemnation from the League. Italy followed suit in 1935 after being censured for its invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Nazi Germany aimed to establish a vast Reich, imposing its vision of Lebensraum (living space) on Europe. In early 1935, Germany annexed the Saarland following a plebiscite. It promoted rearmament, established compulsory military service, created an air force, and remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936, all in violation of the Treaty... Continue reading "World War II: Causes and Early Stages" »

World Bank and Brazilian Health Reform in the 1990s

Abstract: We analyze the World Bank's proposals for reforming the Brazilian health sector, explaining aspects assimilated by the Brazilian government in implementing the Unified Health System (SUS) during the 1990s. We assume that projects and programs funded by the World Bank aimed to contribute to economic and social development. However, through loan agreements and conditionalities, the Bank sought to influence national policies, provoking an unannounced counter-reform to restrict or annul constitutional rights.

Social rights, including the right to health expressed in the 1988 Federal Constitution, resulted from a multifaceted process reflecting contradictions within Brazilian society, which... Continue reading "World Bank Health Sector Reforms in Brazil: 1990s Analysis" »

T14: The Franco Regime

Characteristics of the Franco Regime

The Franco regime was characterized by a totalitarian dictatorship, warlordism, repression, systematically planned centralism, and unilateralism. The institutional foundations of the regime were the army, Falange, and the Church. Its social support came from the economic elites and the peasantry, with passive resistance from the middle and lower classes. Politically, it was based on a coalition of Francoists, Falangists, monarchists, Carlists, and Catholic organizations like Opus Dei. The organization of the state was characterized by the lack of democracy and the *Fundamental Laws*.

Stages of the Franco Regime

• The Second World War (1939-1945)

  This period saw support for the Axis powers,

Biography of Alfred Nobel

Alfred Nobel was born into a family of engineers. When he was nine years old, his family moved to Russia, where he and his brothers received an excellent education in natural sciences and humanities. He spent much of his youth in St. Petersburg, where his father installed an arms factory, which went bankrupt in 1859.

He returned to Sweden in 1863, completing the investigations there that had begun in the field of explosives: in 1863, he created a detonator controlled by the explosions of nitroglycerin (invented in 1846 by the Italian Ascanio Sobrero). In 1865, he perfected the system with a detonator of mercury, and in 1867, he created dynamite, a plastic explosive resulting from nitroglycerin absorbed in a porous solid... Continue reading "Alfred Nobel: Biography of the Inventor of Dynamite" »

Early 20th Century Spanish Politics

Regenerationism and Political Reform

Polavieja Government

Attempted political system reform and tax reform, facing opposition.

Maura Government

Implemented the Electoral Act of 1907 and social laws. Forged an agreement with Catalan nationalists but also oversaw the harsh repression of the Tragic Week.

Canalejas Government

Introduced further reforms, including labor laws (the "Padlock Law") and changes to the tax system. Canalejas was assassinated by an anarchist in 1912.

Opposition Forces

• Republicanism
• Carlism and Traditionalism
• Working Class Movement (PSOE, UGT, and CNT)

The Evolution of Catalanism

Political Organizations

• Regionalist League Hegemony
• Catalan Solidarity Coalition (1906)
• Strengthening of the Catalan Republicans

Commonwealth

**3. Carrero Blanco's Death**

On December 20, 1973, the date set by the Public Order Court (TOP) to hold the trial of the national coordinator of the Workers' Commissions (CCOO), the Txikia commando of ETA killed Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco in Madrid. With this terrorist attack, the Basque organization ETA, which assumed responsibility for the assassination later known as *"Operation Ogre"*, triggered a crisis in the ruling coalition's politics. Admiral Carrero had facilitated the arrival of technocrats to power in 1957 and demonstrated his influence over Franco's designation of Juan Carlos as the dictator's successor to the Head of State. Like the general, he always opposed the creation of political associations and the construction of autonomous... Continue reading "Franco's Death & Spain's Transition: Key Events" »