Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Age of Revolutions in Europe

The political revolutions that took place brought the final end to absolute monarchy in Europe. Most of these revolutionary movements were based on liberal and nationalist ideologies.

Revolutions of the 1820s

The following revolutions took place in the 1820s:

• In Portugal and Spain, liberal revolutions aimed to establish constitutional monarchies.
• Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire through a liberal and nationalist revolution.

Revolutions of 1830

In 1830, other revolutions broke out:

• In France, a liberal revolution established a constitutional monarchy.
• In Belgium, a nationalist revolution gained independence from the Netherlands, to which Belgium had been united by the Congress of Vienna.

Revolutions

Classification of Prayers

Main

Those propositions which are not introduced by a conjunction or link and have the verb in the indicative.

Juxtaposed

They are made by a comma (,) or semicolon (;) and have no conjunction, and the main clause has already been stated.

Coordinates

They can be:

• Copulative: Links: y, e, or que.
• Dilemma: Nexus: o, u, and, well, that is, pray.
• Adversative: Links: but, but, however, but, however, but nevertheless, but ... that, but.
• Distributive: Links: o. .. . O, u. .. u, and ... and, well .. well, whatever ... . That is, now .... now, - (These are repeats of the disjunctive).
• Explanatory: Nexus: that is, that is, that is.

Subordinated

Can be:

Adverbial Subordinate

• Temporary: Nexus: when, before, after, while, provided that, as soon

Mikhail Gorbachev

Joined the CPSU in 1952 and, after a relatively rapid career in the bureaucracy, was appointed Communist Party Secretary General on March 11, 1985, following the death of his predecessor, Chernenko. He immediately launched his proposal to restructure and modernize the economy and Soviet society, known as perestroika. This reform process had an immediate consequence: the USSR was to limit its international commitments and increasing military spending, especially high since the Red Army was jammed into the war in Afghanistan. To that end, Gorbachev's doctrine of novomyshlenie or "new thinking" meant ending the long conflict between East and West and pursuing standardization. During a time when international relations were marked... Continue reading "Mikhail Gorbachev's Impact on Cold War and Soviet Dissolution" »

The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe

Political and Military Challenges

During the reign of Philip III, the monarch did everything possible to bring peace to his dominions, signing peace with England and the Twelve Years' Truce with the Netherlands. The Netherlands, a territory which had declared itself independent the previous century, had not seen its secession accepted by Spain.

The end of the Twelve Years' Truce and Spain's participation in the Thirty Years' War in support of Austria marked the beginning of a long and arduous conflict. While successes were achieved in the Netherlands (notably the Surrender of Breda) and victories gained in the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, France's entry into this conflict would prove decisive,... Continue reading "Spanish Empire's Decline: 17th Century Habsburg Fall" »

Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC

In 5th century BC Athenian society, there were three distinct classes:

Citizens

This class was composed of free adult males who were children of Athenian parents during the time of Pericles (5th century BC). Citizens constituted the core of privileged people who possessed full political rights and were the only ones who could possess or acquire land in Attica.

In return, citizens were obliged to pay taxes, abide by and comply with all laws, and be mobilized for war. Among the citizens, there were significant differences in their wealth: first, members of noble families and then the townspeople formed by small farmers, traders, artisans, and sailors.

Metics

Metics means "cohabitation." Foreigners were free and... Continue reading "Athenian Society in the 5th Century BC: Citizens, Metics, and Slaves" »

Biography of Juan José Flores

Juan José Flores, born in Puerto Cabello, Venezuela, on 19 July 1801, died on Puná Island at 63 years old in October 1864. His childhood was poor and helpless. As an adolescent, without clear direction for his life, he joined the Spanish forces at 15 years old. His conduct was recognized in the practice of valor. He served as president from 1830 to 1834. He later held the presidency again, serving until 1845.

First Constituent Assembly of Ecuador

• Where it met: Riobamba
• When it met: On 14 August 1830
• Purpose: To establish the first constitution

Revolts of Juan José Flores

Chronology of the English Debt

1. Representatives were summoned to Bogotá to discuss joining Gran Colombia.
2. The English Debt is incurred.
3. Vicente Rocafuerte'

The Prague Spring: Causes of the Czechoslovakian Rebellion (1968)

The citizens of Czechoslovakia (often referred to as the Czechs) rebelled in 1968 due to several key demands:

• Freedom of Expression: People wanted to be able to discuss ideas openly.
• Political Freedom: People wanted to be able to set up political parties and vote freely.
• Worker Rights: Workers wanted more of a say in how their industries were run.
• End of Terror: They demanded an end to the rule of terror enforced by the secret police.
• Economic Improvement: They sought a better standard of living.
• Market Reforms: They wanted the ability to choose what products to make and gain profits.

The Soviet Justification for Invasion

After some reforms were made to bring greater freedom of expression,... Continue reading "The Prague Spring and the Construction of the Berlin Wall (1961-1968)" »

4.1 Taxes and Rights

• The Seven Years’ War had doubled Britain’s national debt and increased 5-fold the cost of running and defending North America: Britain wanted more revenue from America and claimed the right to extract it.
• The Stamp Act of 1765 extended this duty to the colonies – it was the first direct tax as distinct from duties on trade. It hit merchants, lawyers and editors the hardest, leading to mob violence against British agents in Boston and other cities from the Sons of Liberty. Merchants boycotted imports from Britain.
• The Stamp Act Congress met in New York to petition the king to repeal the Stamp Act. The delegates agreed a Declaration of Right which stated that ‘no taxes be imposed on them but with their own consent’.

1. Historical-Political Analysis

The constant struggle against water compelled the civilian population to organize levee maintenance. From the 13th and 14th centuries, "tips" formed to regulate their control.

Furthermore, the nature of their land prevented the consolidation of a powerful landed aristocracy, and feudalism did not take root. The inhabitants were predominantly smallholder farmers.

The current Kingdom of the Netherlands is the historical successor of the former Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands North. It emerged as an independent entity after the Wars of Religion of the 16th and 17th centuries.

This historical period, known as the Eighty Years' War, was a continuous conflict against the Hispanic Monarchy from the... Continue reading "The Netherlands: A Political History" »