Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Origins of English: Celts and Germanic Tribes

The early inhabitants included the Celts (Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Brittany) and the Germanic Peoples.

In 55 BC, Julius Caesar landed in Britain. Later, Germanic tribes threatened the Celtic chiefs. These tribes—the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—sailed to Britain starting around AD 449. They established seven kingdoms (Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex), forming the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy.

The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy and Old English

Old English (Anglo-Saxon English) incorporated only a couple of Celtic words. By AD 1000, the country was known as Englaland (the land of the Angles). Old English had its own dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, and West Saxon.

The Conversion

American Revolution Causes and Context

Colonial Economy and Tensions

The Northern Colonies' economy was based on agriculture and trade. In the Southern Colonies, the main activity was tobacco farming, primarily carried out by enslaved Black people.

Britain desired raw materials from the American colonies but had no interest in developing industry there. They also held a monopoly on trade.

Political Disputes and Taxes

Political tensions arose as colonial assemblies gained significant powers, such as collecting certain taxes. Britain imposed taxes on the settlers, but they often refused to pay. This served as a protest because the settlers were not represented in the British Parliament.

King George III attempted to impose new taxes, further escalating... Continue reading "American and French Revolutions: Key Events and Causes" »

Nicholas II and Autocracy

Nicholas II ascended to the throne in 1896. He possessed no political experience and maintained a strict policy of autocracy.

Methods of Control: Carrots and Sticks

The Tsarist regime employed a system of incentives and punishments to manage the population:

• Carrots (Incentives): If a peasant was considered good and wealthy, they were granted land.
• Sticks (Repression): If individuals were poor, engaged in strikes, or supported revolutionary movements, they faced severe repression and exile.

This policy was notably implemented by Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin starting in 1906.

Opposition to the Tsarist Regime

Various groups opposed the Tsar, seeking fundamental changes to Russian society.

The Cadets and Democratic Aspirations

The... Continue reading "The Collapse of Tsarist Russia: 1896 to 1917" »

The Second World War (I)

The Combatants

On September 1, 1939, World War II began after Germany invaded Poland. The conflict lasted for almost six years, ending on August 5, 1945. Nations at war were divided into two groups: The Allies, led by France and the United Kingdom, and The Axis Powers, led by Germany and Italy.

The Causes of the War

Several factors contributed to the outbreak of World War II:

• Germany's desire for revenge after the humiliation suffered at the Treaty of Versailles.
• Economic depression.
• The rise of totalitarian regimes.
• Imperialist and militaristic policies: Japan invaded Manchuria (1932), Italy annexed Abyssinia (1935) and Albania (1939), and Germany, claiming territories of German population, annexed Austria (1938) and the Sudetenland,

As a global superpower, the United States aims to assist nations in need and promote positive values worldwide. However, American foreign policy should prioritize a realist perspective, placing American interests first. Historical events such as the Battle of Mogadishu, the Camp David Accords, and the airstrikes in Syria exemplify the effectiveness of realism in shaping our foreign policy and underscore the importance of maintaining this approach.

The Camp David Accords: A Diplomatic Triumph

During President Jimmy Carter's administration, the Camp David Accords involved two weeks of negotiations between Israel and Egypt in the United States. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin signed the "Framework for Peace... Continue reading "American Foreign Policy: A Realist Approach" »

William Dunbar and Occasional Poetry

William Dunbar (c. 1460–c. 1520) was a prominent Scottish makar (poet) associated with the court of James IV of Scotland. He received a classical education at the University of St. Andrews and exemplifies the figure of the courtier poet.

"To the Princess Margaret on her Arrival at Holyrood" (1503)

This poem is an example of occasional poetry—verse written specifically to celebrate or commemorate a certain event. Dunbar composed this piece in 1503 to honor Princess Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII of England, upon her arrival in Scotland.

The Context of the Tudor Renaissance State

The poem was produced under the reign of Henry VII, who inaugurated the Tudor dynasty on the English throne following his victory... Continue reading "Dunbar, Margaret Tudor, and the Rise of Renaissance Court Poetry" »

Re: Beyond Roman borders were barbarians. Near the frontier, the Germanic tribes made economic exchanges. They sold the Romans wood, amber, and slaves. Sometimes there were Germanic raids on Roman territory, so the Romans built fortifications along the Rhine and Danube rivers.

Debido a la Revolución Francesa e Industrial se creó una nueva clase social, la Class-based Society, que estaba formada por la alta burguesía y the birth of the working class.

Industrial Revolution

Fue originada en Great Britain en 1750.

Cambió la economía del país; la agricultura se hizo menos importante y la industria más.

Causes

• Crecimiento de la población

  Se necesitaba más comida pero había más trabajadores, así que se producía mucho más.

• Mejoras de la agricultura

  Había campos más grandes.

  Aparecieron nuevas máquinas y fertilizantes.

• Increased trade
• Technological progress

  The invention of new machines enabled factories to produce goods more quickly. Prices decreased.

• Financial support from agriculture and trade

  In Great Britain,

Treaty of Versailles Aftermath

World War I was poorly resolved due to the harsh terms imposed on Germany by the **Treaty of Versailles**, leading to economic hardships and fostering resentment.

Aggression and Appeasement

Germany pursued aggressive territorial expansion and military rearmament, while Japan aimed at territorial conquests in Asia. In response, England and France initially followed **appeasement** policies, hoping to avoid conflict.

German Expansion 1933-1939

Germany's territorial achievements from 1933 to 1939 included the remilitarization of the **Rhineland**, the annexation of Austria (**Anschluss**), and the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

Formation of Alliances

Germany formed alliances with Italy and Japan through the **Rome-Berlin-... Continue reading "World War II Origins and Aftermath" »