Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The February Revolution of 1917: The Fall of Tsarism

On February 23, 1917, a large demonstration took place in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg), followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed. It was headed by a provisional government, which promised to convene constituent elections to make Russia a parliamentary democracy. The new government, dominated by bourgeois parties (Kadets and Socialist Revolutionaries), initiated a series of political and social reforms. However, they also decided to remain committed to their allies in the war. This made it difficult to improve the living conditions of the population and implement the planned agrarian reform.

Popular discontent grew, and... Continue reading "Russian Revolution 1917: Bolsheviks Seize Power" »

Why do revolutions happen?

The reforms of the Enlightenment did not solve the problems of the old regime. That is why this system came to an end through revolution. But other aspects of life were also influential in the desire to change and break away from the old system and social inequality between privileged classes and non-privileged classes.

The New State

After the war, the United States had a liberal system and was regulated by the U.S. Constitution. It was organized as a federal republic, establishing national sovereignty and separation of powers among the President, Congress, and the Supreme Court.

Tea Act

The Tea Act gave the British East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the colonies, as well as the right to duty-free exports.... Continue reading "Causes of Revolutions and the Transition to Liberalism" »

1. The February Revolution: The Fall of Tsarism

1. The revolution began with a large demonstration in St. Petersburg followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. The groups of demonstrators were composed of soldiers, workers, and peasants.

2. The Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government promised to call elections to make Russia a parliamentary democracy. The government was dominated by the bourgeois parties and didn't withdraw from World War I. It couldn't improve the living conditions of the people, whose discontent grew. The Soviets (groups of workers and soldiers) began to demand the dismissal of the government.

2. The October Revolution: The Bolsheviks Rise to Power

1. Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned to Russia from... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Soviet Rule (1917-1921)" »

The Abolition of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

The campaign to abolish the transatlantic slave trade and, subsequently, the institution of slavery itself, was driven by a confluence of economic, humanitarian, and moral-religious factors.

Key Figures in Abolition

Three prominent figures were instrumental in the movement to end slave trafficking:

• James Ramsay: Advocated for abolition primarily on economic grounds. He argued that greater financial prosperity could be achieved through the exchange of goods rather than the trade of enslaved people.
• Olaudah Equiano: Championed abolition from a humanitarian perspective, emphasizing the inherent unethical nature of slavery. His personal narrative powerfully illustrated the human cost of the trade.
• William

Germanic invasions: 'Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'

Official account of the Germanic invasions (449). Angles in Britain first drove the enemy, after they made a league with them and went against their allies. The Heptarchy: 7 Anglo-Saxon 'kingdoms' - Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex. England as a politically unified nation in the 10th century.

Dialects of Old English:

River Humber, River Thames, South, South/South-West.

The Germanic occupation of Britain was cruel, and most Britons died. The culture of Britons was not assimilated by Germanic tribes. Atheling (royal family), Earl (major nobility), Thegn (Minor nobility), Freemen, and Serf. Conversion of Germanic invaders to Christianity: Christianity was brought... Continue reading "Germanic Invasions and Cultural Assimilation in Britain" »

The Communist Bloc (1945-1982)

The Soviet Union and the “People's Democracies”

The Soviet Union emerged as a military superpower after World War II. Following Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev initiated a “de-Stalinization” process, but his successor, Leonid Brezhnev, halted the reforms.

In Central and Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union established “people's democracies” that imposed Soviet institutions. Despite this, living standards in these countries never reached Western levels.

China under Mao Zedong

A civil war erupted in China in 1945, leading to the communist victory in 1949. This resulted in the creation of two states:

• People's Republic of China, led by Mao Zedong
• Republic of China in Taiwan

Mao's regime maintained political... Continue reading "The Communist Bloc: Rise, Expansion, and Collapse" »

Imperialism: Great War

The 'Great War' was a conflict between the 'Great Powers' of Europe and their empires. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) joined in 1914, Japan in 1914, and the USA in 1917. Key nations ruled vast empires, making the war global but centered in Europe. Imperial rivalries, such as France and Britain in North Africa, and Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, fueled tensions. Russia's colonial empire in Asia posed a threat to Britain and Japan, leading them to ally in WWI.

Imperialism/Industrialisation Rivalry

Rivalry over trade and markets drove all European powers to experience significant industrial growth. This growth led to military advancements, such as improved transport of troops and supplies through railways, iron, and

Wilson's 14 points:

• Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at
• Freedom of the seas
• The removal so far as possible of all economic barriers
• The reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety
• Impartial adjustment of all colonial claims
• The evacuation of all Russian territory
• The evacuation and restoration of Belgium
• The liberation of France and return to her of Alsace and Lorraine
• Readjustment of the frontiers of Italy to conform to clearly recognizable lines of nationality
• The peoples of Austria-Hungary should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development
• Evacuation of occupation forces from Romania, Serbia and Montenegro; Serbia should be accorded free and secure access to the sea
• Autonomous development

Napoleon's Rise and Fall (1804-1815)

Domestic Policy

Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. He established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens. It introduced new legal concepts such as:

• Civil marriage
• Divorce
• Adoption
• State education

International Policy

Napoleon expanded his empire through numerous military victories over other European powers. He defeated all the countries allied against France except Great Britain. His power began to decline because he had to divide his forces between two distant fronts: Spain and the Russian Empire. Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.

Consequences of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire

The main consequence of the French Revolution and... Continue reading "Napoleon, French Revolution & Spanish War of Independence" »

Consequences of the Crisis

1. This was a period of serious political tension. Warlords led the pillaging and made the distribution of goods precarious. Armies often burned the land of their enemies so they would go hungry.

2. Bad harvests and grain shortages resulted in famine.

3. Malnutrition weakened the population and enabled epidemics to emerge. These developed more easily in the cities, as the sanitary conditions there were worse.

4. The bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, spread through Europe between 1348 and 1350. It took the lives of approximately 50% of Europe's population.

5. Social unrest. Economic crisis and population decline had consequences for society: social differences increased, there was a general climate of insecurity and violence;