Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The following text is a minute from the decree written by Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, the head of government (a Spanish economist and politician, liberal progressive), addressed to the regent Maria Cristina during the minority of her daughter. It explains the desamortizador process.

Objectives of the Confiscation

The main theme of this decree is to explain the objectives of the confiscation. The primary goal of selling state-owned assets was to fulfill a promise and reduce the national debt. Secondary objectives included:

• Economic development
• Facilitating property ownership
• Boosting commerce and industry

Significance of the Confiscation

The confiscation of church lands was a key element of the liberal revolution and had significant economic and social... Continue reading "Mendizabal's Confiscation: Political, Legal, and Economic Impact" »

The Build-Up to the Spanish Civil War: 1934-1936

The Aftermath of the 1934 Uprisings

The IZDAS LIFT-10-34 was a counter-reaction to strikes and armed uprisings, most notably in Asturias and Catalonia. In Catalonia, the unrest had a political nature, with a communist general strike and Luis Companys proclaiming a Catalan Republic within Spain, which was quickly dissolved. In Asturias, the uprising had a social and revolutionary character, aiming to replace the bourgeois republic with a workers' state. This was driven by a pact between the CNT and UGT, symbolized by the initials UHP (Union of Proletarian Brothers), to fight against the bourgeoisie. The army, with civilian elements brought from Africa by Franco, was used to suppress the uprisings.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War Origins: 1934-1936 Political Unrest" »

Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876

Cánovas was instrumental to the Constitution of 1876. Even during the Revolutionary Sexenio, Cánovas had bet on the idea of the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II. He admired the way in which the British had managed to introduce a new liberal monarchy, bourgeois, bipartisan, which shared power with Parliament. He managed to create a similar model in Spain after the adoption of the Constitution of 1876 and consolidated the two-party system.

From January 1875 until the adoption of the Constitution of 1876, Cánovas had the dual mission of chairing the first government of King Alfonso XII and preparing to implement the new constitution that would bring all ideological... Continue reading "Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876: Restoration Era" »

Key Terms of Francoist Spain

Understanding the vocabulary of Francoist Spain is essential for grasping the complexities of this historical period. Here are some key terms:

The Blue Division

Spanish military union volunteers who fought on the Russian front during World War II, between 1941 and 1944.

The National Institute of Industry

Established in the postwar period to promote industrial development.

Ration Cards

Cards that were distributed among the population to buy staples.

Black Market

Speculators were selling products illegally at excessively high prices, often double or triple the official market price.

Opus Dei

An institution of the Catholic Church founded by José María Escrivá in 1941. It consists of religious and secular members, and its main... Continue reading "Key Terms of Francoist Spain: Understanding the Era" »

Spanish Civil War: Uprising and Outbreak (1936)

The Spanish Civil War began with an uprising in Melilla in 1936. It quickly spread throughout the Protectorate of Morocco, and subsequently to the Peninsula and archipelagos. The government of Casares Quiroga reacted slowly. The main architects of the uprising were Generals Mola, Franco, and Sanjurjo. Franco moved from the Canary Islands to Morocco to take command of the Legion. After a plane crash that killed Sanjurjo, the National Defense Council was formed to direct the military operations of the Nationalist side.

Nationalist Successes and Failures

The coup succeeded in:

• Galicia
• Castilla-León
• Navarra (with General Mola in Pamplona)
• Western Andalusia (with Queipo de Llano in Seville)
• Balearic Islands

Agrarian Reform

The Agrarian Reform was initially applied in 1932 to the estates of southern Spain. It was later extended to the whole country. Small and medium landowners strongly opposed the reforms, which were implemented very slowly. The central government reform was not satisfactory for anyone.

Labor Reforms

These reforms were the work of Largo Caballero. They created a new framework for relations between employers and workers and established a labor law for the agricultural sector. The main measures were:

• The Law of Labor Contracts
• The Law of Mixed Juries
• The Law of Municipal Terms
• The Law of Compulsory Tillage
• The Law of Accidents in the Field
• The imposition of an eight-hour workday in agriculture

Other reforms, such as the Worker Intervention... Continue reading "Agrarian, Labor, Military, Religious, and Educational Reforms in Spain" »

The Birth of the USSR

The New Regime: First Steps

The Council of People's Commissars issued a series of decrees aimed to satisfy the main demands of the masses and win their accession. These included:

• The decree on the end of the war proposed a peace without annexations or indemnities.
• The decree on land expropriated land without agricultural contracts.
• The decree on industrial factories put under the control of workers and employees.
• The decree on the nationalities declared the right of peoples to freely dispose of Russia.

In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly met. Soviet power and the dictatorship of the proletariat would become the pillars of Bolshevik Russia. Gradually, the opposition was silenced. In July 1918, the Congress of Soviets adopted... Continue reading "USSR Birth & 1929 Stock Market Crash: Key Events" »

Prelude to Conflict

In 1898, Spain and the U.S. started a war for control of Cuba. It was a short war due to American superiority, but it had serious repercussions for Spain's dwindling empire. This crisis favored the emergence of cultural movements that criticized the Restoration period and sought political regeneration.

Cuban War of Independence

Cuba had been a Spanish possession since its discovery by Christopher Columbus. For Spain, it was the "pearl of the Antilles" due to its natural resources and strategic position. From the 19th century, it became the largest producer of sugar.

In the mid-19th century, changes occurred driven by the Creole aristocracy, as the profitability of slavery and the sugar monopoly declined, alongside issues with... Continue reading "Spain's 1898 Crisis: Cuban Independence & U.S. War" »

Family Policies and Power Dynamics in Franco's Spain

Within a complete subordination to the Leader, there were different families or groups with different political sensitivity, never parties, as in the Franco regime political parties were banned. Falange was only allowed, but defining it as a party was banned so that became known as the National Movement. Each family tried to influence the decisions of Franco, and the ability of this was to entrust parcels to conveniently measures, supported successively one family or another as appropriate at all times, moving from the foreground to those made uncomfortable by some internal or external reason and thus ensured their presence in power unchallenged. When a scandal broke out in some way be attributed... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Family Policies and Power Dynamics" »

1. Discuss the Origins of the Cold War

Why did the US and the Soviet Union disagree so drastically on the formulation of the postwar world from 1945-1950? What were some of the main issues that divided the world into “two camps?”

The Cold War lasted from 1946, following the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition and the establishment of an exclusive zone of Soviet influence in Central Europe, to the disintegration of the Soviet satellite states in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Throughout this period, the confrontation between the two superpowers was fought on multiple fronts: military, ideological, psychological, and economic. The most important element was a technological arms race, including the reinforcement and... Continue reading "Cold War Origins: US-Soviet Tensions 1945-1950" »