Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Introduction to the Great War

Between 1871 and 1914, intense rivalries among European nations led to the formation of two powerful alliances that ultimately clashed during the First World War.

The First World War was fought by these two opposing alliances, involving various European countries, as well as the USA and Japan.

Pre-War Tensions and Causes

The period of uneasy peace in Europe at the end of the 19th century was marked by several significant sources of tension:

• Franco-German Rivalry

  France sought to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to the German Empire in 1871.

• Balkan Nationalism

  Between 1878 and 1908, the Austro-Hungarian Empire occupied and then annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. This action fueled nationalist protests from

The Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuba, an ally of the Soviet Union, received diplomatic and financial aid. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, threatening the US mainland. After three weeks, the US became aware of the missiles. President John F. Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a warning. This standoff is known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The End of World War II and the Dawn of the Cold War

The end of World War II marked the beginning of the Cold War. The war concluded when the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender. This decision remains controversial, with critics... Continue reading "Cold War and Post-Cold War Era: Key Events and Analysis" »

The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy (1804-1814)

King Charles IV declared war on France, resulting in a disastrous outcome. Minister Manuel Godoy sought an alliance with Napoleon against Great Britain and attacked Portugal. Public discontent forced Godoy's resignation, and Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon summoned both to France, paving the way for his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, to become the new Spanish king.

The War of Independence (1804-1814)

A popular revolt erupted in Madrid against French rule. Juntas and a Supreme Central Junta were formed to coordinate the resistance. Guerrilla groups emerged, and cities held firm against the invaders. British troops, led by Wellington, provided crucial support. By the end... Continue reading "Spain: From Bourbon Monarchy to Restoration (1804-1888)" »

CAUSES: The Great Depression

The Great Depression. European nations sought their own solutions such as applying protectionist measures and competition for markets. Totalitarian regimes. When the Nazis implemented an aggressive policy to compensate for the 'humiliation', the neighboring countries opted for a policy of appeasement, which was unsuccessful and two opposing blocs were formed. Militarism and rearmament. Since Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by rearming, aggressive speech, military parades, and uniforms once again became commonplace in Europe. Territorial conflicts and expansionism. The old conflicts reignited in the territories that had passed into the hands of other nations after the First World War and Germany reasserted... Continue reading "Causes and Consequences of World War II: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Opposition to Franco's Regime

There was harsh persecution of people who had opposed Franco during the war or later. Thousands were jailed or executed, but, despite this, an armed guerrilla resisted in the mountains during the 40s (the Maquis).

From the 50s, opposition was organized from those who were in exile, including parties and unions like PCE, PSOE, CNT, UGT, and CCOO. Also, monarchists were asking for a return to democracy, as well as the nationalist parties.

During the 60s, the number of demonstrations and strikes increased despite the repression. Universities also became a strong anti-Franco force. Even anti-Francoist groups emerged from the church.

End of the Franco Dictatorship

• 1969: Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón was chosen as Franco'

Why Did Reconstruction Fail?

-The failure of the North to effectively rebuild the South and bring it back into the Union during Reconstruction is evident after the time period. First, the unsuccessful nature of Reconstruction can be seen in 1880 when the "contrast between the South and the Northeast was similar to that between Russia (one of the poorest nations in Europe) and Germany (one of the wealthiest)." Also, "long into the 20th century, the South remained a one-party region under the control of a reactionary ruling elite" that harbored hatred against the North. In fact, until the 1940's, Tennessee was the only state of the former Confederacy to observe Lincoln's birthday as a legal holiday.

-Another issue of Reconstruction, the integration

1.1 Democracy in the United States

The United States was a democracy with a two-party political system.

Republican administrations governed the US as a result of the economic prosperity of the 1920s and due to the fear of Communism,... Continue reading "Democracy vs. Authoritarianism: A Comparative Analysis of Political Systems in the 20th Century" »

1. Fascism and Nazism

1.1 The Fascist Regime in Italy

1921: Mussolini forms the National Fascist Party.

1922: With the support of King Victor Emmanuel III, Mussolini becomes prime minister.

1925: Mussolini establishes a dictatorship.

• Bans other political parties and persecutes opponents.
• Implements public works programs to reduce unemployment.
• Expands Italy's colonial empire by invading Abyssinia in 1935.

1.2 Nazi Germany

1920s: Hitler becomes leader of the Nazi Party.

1934: Hitler establishes the Third Reich.

• Bans other political parties and trade unions.
• Creates the Gestapo to eliminate opposition.
• Implements public works programs to address unemployment.
• Pursues an expansionist foreign policy to regain lost territory.
• Promotes the idea of German racial

What are Civil Rights?

Civil rights are basic rights that every citizen has under the laws of the government. In the United States, the civil rights of each individual citizen are protected by the Constitution. Civil rights for every person means that regardless of gender, skin color, religion, nationality, age, disability, or religion, a person should not be discriminated against. Civil rights include the right to free speech, privacy, religion, assembly, a fair trial, and freedom of thought. Anyone who is considered a citizen of a country should be treated equally under the law.

Civil Rights Movements Throughout History

Throughout history, there have been different civil rights movements. Each movement fought for the rights of a given section... Continue reading "Civil Rights: A Global Fight for Equality" »

Shanghai Massacres and Extermination Campaigns

• NRA liberated Shanghai from the warlords
• Chiang feared a general strike and a CCP takeover
• Chiang attacked and killed anyone suspected to be communist
• White Terror, many casualties

Consequences of the Massacres

• Failed to crush communists
• Split within the KMT, and Chiang expelled from the party
• Policy of the united front between KMT and Communists was affirmed
  • Policy meant peace between both parties
  • In a near future calling for elections for rightful power in China
• Stalin rejected this policy
• CCP weakened
• KMT was united again, Chiang was leader again
• CCP tried Stalin's aggressive policy, were crushed each time
• KMT broke off all relations with the CCP
• 1927 was disastrous for CCP
• New Soviet advisers were sent into