Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931): Bourbon Monarchy

The end of the First Spanish Republic coincided with the Carlist Wars and uprisings. Cánovas del Castillo formed the Alfonsist party, aiming to restore the Bourbon monarchy with Alfonso XII. After Isabel II abdicated, Cánovas became Alfonso XII's tutor and sent him to England. The Sandhurst Manifesto declared Spain a constitutional monarchy, followed by the pronunciamiento of Sagunto in 1874. Alfonso XII became king in 1875.

Cánovas and the Canovite Settlement

As a deputy in the 1869 Cortes, Cánovas opposed the 1869 Constitution, finding the liberty of religious practice unacceptable, and he also opposed universal suffrage. He admired the English political system for its stability and lack... Continue reading "Spanish Restoration: Bourbon Monarchy and Political Shifts" »

Lincoln Cathedral

It was the tallest building in the world for 238 years. After came Gizeh.

Architect: Bishop Remigious

Patron: William the Conqueror

Style: Gothic

Century: Consecrated 11 May 1092

Stonehenge

Architect:

Patron:

Style: Prehistoric monument

Century: Constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC.

Great Pyramids, Gizeh, Egypt: It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.

Architect:

Patron:

Style: Prehistoric

Century: 2580-2560 BC

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece: dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron.

Architect: Iktinos, Callicrates

Patron: Athenian Empire

Style: Classical Greece

Century: Completed 432 BC

Maison Carree, Nimes, France the Maison Carree was dedicated... Continue reading "Historic Architectural Masterpieces Around the World" »

Edward the confessor- Harold vs Tostig- William- Battle of hastings. JSDIC.

Loss- King John lost Norm.- E & F broken, 1st concern(king nobles),Own Pol&Econ

E- NAtion - E non ultivate. E Not merely a geo term but once more a nation.

MeLIT - 1150-1250 "The period of Rel record", English was absent inb works

Appealing to courtly tastes, lang of midd low clases F top

1250-1350 " T + Secular Lit In English -- wider diff engl lang & adopted all class

1350-1400- "the Period of GIR". GC - Troilus& Criseyde" - Canter T.

W. Langland- social allegory / John Wycliffe putative transl of BIBLE, Sir gawain

and the Green Knight and the three allegorical religious poems. + 15 th period

Real Arthur.

No one has answered the question of the King Arthur being... Continue reading "The Evolution of the Arthurian Legend" »

The Causes of World War I

Colonial Conflicts and Tensions

The Berlin Conference had attempted to establish rules for the colonization of the African continent by European empires, but the German Empire reopened these conflicts. At the beginning of the 20th century, Morocco was the main scene of international tension as European powers competed to control it.

Rivalries, Nationalism, and Imperial Ambitions

European powers became increasingly nationalistic to defend their interests in Europe and their colonial empires. Some European peoples had nationalist aspirations and wanted to become independent states, while others defended their status as great traditional empires.

The German Empire annexed the French region of Alsace-Lorraine following its... Continue reading "The Path to World War I: Alliances, Rivalries, and Conflict" »

Prehistory and Early Civilizations

Prehistoric Connections and Art

• The *Homo sapiens sapiens*-Neanderthalensis connection.
• The **Bering Land Bridge**.
• Paleolithic Art:
  • ***Venus*** figurines (representing the feminine).
  • Cave paintings at **Altamira** (Spain) and **Lascaux** (France).

Mesopotamia: Cradle of Civilization

• The ancient city of **Damascus**.
• **Sargon I** (c. 2330 BC): Conquered the Sumerian city-states.
• **The Code of Hammurabi**: Considered the first comprehensive written legal code.
• Mesopotamia (335–300 BC): Fell under the control of **Alexander the Great**.
• Architectural Elements (General): Arch, fresco, relief, and vault.

Ancient Egypt: Pharaohs and Empires

• **Unification**: c. 3100 BC, Egypt was united into a single kingdom by Pharaoh **Menes*

Decisions and Agreements

• Mutual recognition: Recognition between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
• Palestinian autonomy and the Palestinian National Authority: Establishment of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
• Creation of the Palestinian police: Formation of a Palestinian police force responsible for security in areas under PNA control.
• Division of the West Bank:
  • Zone A: Full Palestinian control of cities and some agrarian areas (3%).
  • Zone B: Mixed control, with Palestinian administration but Israeli military presence (25%).
  • Zone C: Full Israeli control, including the most fertile territories and Israeli settlements (72%).
• Major unresolved issues: Jerusalem, refugees, and

Post-World War I Economic and Political Landscape

Post-War Economic Challenges

World economic dominance shifted from Great Britain to the United States. In Europe, the adaptation from a war economy to a peace economy was difficult due to the cessation of hostilities, rampant inflation, and high unemployment. The crisis was particularly severe in Germany.

International Efforts for Stability

To resolve the conflict and stabilize the European economy, the United States introduced the Dawes Plan in 1924. This plan significantly improved relations between France and Germany, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Locarno in 1925. Germany was subsequently admitted into the League of Nations in 1926, marking a period of cautious optimism.

Economic Instability

The Birth of the French Republic (1792-1793)

Following the insurrection of August 1792, a National Convention governed France from September 1792. This assembly, elected by all adult males, abolished the monarchy and established the French Republic. Initially, the Girondins, or moderate republicans, held control.

The Convention condemned Louis XVI for treason, leading to his execution by guillotine in January 1793. This event sparked international outrage and the formation of the First Coalition, with Britain and the Dutch Republic joining forces against France.

The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

With the revolution facing threats, the radical Jacobins, supported by the sans-culottes, seized power from the Girondins in June 1793. Jacobin leader Maximilien... Continue reading "The French First Republic (1792-1799): From Revolution to Napoleon's Rise" »

The Rise of the Mongols

In the mid-twelfth century, the Mongols were just one of many peoples in the eastern grasslands, neither particularly numerous nor especially advanced. Then, Mongolians began to expand because the decline of annual average temperature caused a survival crisis. With the shrinking of pastures, Mongolians and other nomads had to look beyond the grasslands to obtain more food from the agricultural world.

Factors Behind Mongolia's Expansion

The second reason for Mongolia's sudden rise is the emergence of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan and his successors were able to conquer Asia and Europe not only because of the Mongolian army's strong fighting ability and advanced weapons but also due to their army's fighting methods and skills.... Continue reading "The Rise of the Mongols: Genghis Khan's Impact on History" »

Growth of Cantonments in India

Establishment and Purpose

For the defense of their Empire, the British Government established cantonments at strategic locations. They also built cantonments on the borders of important native states to control disturbances and monitor rulers' activities.

Initiation and Expansion

In 1765, Lord Robert Clive initiated the policy of building cantonments to keep British troops"cantone" in one place, enforcing discipline and military lifestyle while maintaining a sanitized environment. During that time, there were 62 cantonments in India.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, significant cantonments were established in Lahore, Peshawar, Ferozpur, Agra, Bareilly, Jalandhar, Jhansi, Nagpur, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Delhi.... Continue reading "Cantonments in India and Colonial Architectural Styles in Bombay" »