Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

New Weapons of World War I

• Infantry Armament: In 1914, an infantry regiment maintained a 12:1 ratio of rifles to machine guns.
• Close-Quarters Combat: Bayonets were standard for hand-to-hand stabbing.
• Grenades: Hand-thrown explosives included the British Mills bomb and the German stick grenade.
• Mortars: These small artillery weapons were highly effective for lobbing bombs directly into enemy trenches.
• Artillery Evolution: Pre-1914 artillery fired two types of shells:
  • Timed-fused shells: Exploded in the air to spray shrapnel; effective against troops in the open but useless against trenches and barbed wire.
  • High-explosive shells: Designed to penetrate defenses, though they often failed to clear barbed wire.
• British Fuse 106: A sensitive percussion device

The Fourteenth Amendment

The Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship rights to all people born in the United States.

The Fifteenth Amendment

The Fifteenth Amendment prohibited states from depriving citizens the right to vote based on race.

The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

President Andrew Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives, but was acquitted by the Senate by one vote.

Plessy v. Ferguson

The Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) that racial segregation laws for public facilities were constitutional as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality.

Jim Crow Laws

Jim Crow laws were a system of laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States.

The Thirteenth Amendment

The Thirteenth Amendment abolished... Continue reading "A Comprehensive Overview of American History: Key Events and Turning Points" »

1. Why did a revolution break out in France?

A. The impact of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution

• Enlightenment principles and the American Revolution gave the bourgeoisie new ideas to confront absolutism and the stratified systems of society.
• The bourgeoisie proposed new forms of social organization and government.
• All of this led to the revolutionary cycle that began in France in 1789 (French Revolution).

B. The social and economic crisis

• Revolution was caused by discontent among the population and the arrival of two major crises in 1789:
• Economic crisis: A series of poor harvests. The rise in the price of food.
• Financial crisis: It was caused by the monarchy’s lack of money. To resolve it, Louis XVI’s ministers proposed that the privileged

Types of Complements

• Direct Object (DO)
• Indirect Object (IO)
• Demoted Object
• Subject Complement
• Object Complement
• Predicator Complement
• Prepositional Object (cannot be an object complement because it is introduced by a preposition)

Predicator complements do not admit a passive. Verbs taking obligatory directional complements include creep and slip. Relational verbs include have and possess. Verbs of measure include measure and cost. Verbs of equal reciprocity include marry and resemble.

Realization of Complements

• Noun Phrase: Smoke means fire.
• Prepositional Phrase: This job calls for great initiative.
• Finite Clause: To draw on whatever resources it can.
• Non-finite Clause: I can't help thinking he must be crazy.

Realization of the Adjunct

• Prepositional Phrase:

The Struggle for Equality: From Slavery to Civil Rights

The Roots of Conflict and Segregation

African Americans were historically subjected to forced labor as slaves. Individuals who opposed this practice were known as abolitionists, advocating for the end of slavery. This fundamental disagreement was a primary catalyst for the Civil War.

Following the outbreak of the war, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the freedom of enslaved people. Shortly thereafter, the North secured victory in the Civil War.

However, even after the war, African Americans in Southern states continued to face severe discrimination. This led to the creation of state and local statutes known as Jim Crow Laws. These laws enforced... Continue reading "American Equality: Civil Rights Milestones and Modern Political Debates" »

The Transition to Democracy in Spain

The phrase “transition” is used to refer to the period between the death of Franco in November 1975 and the establishment and consolidation of liberal democracy in Spain. The most surprising feature of the Transition was that it was done using the institutions Franco had created to perpetuate the Regime.

The Succession

In 1947, Franco issued the Succession Law. Spain was proclaimed a monarchy in which the King, after swearing the Fundamental Laws, could appoint his successor. In 1969, Juan Carlos was appointed. When Franco died in 1975, Juan Carlos was crowned King, and Arias Navarro became Prime Minister.

By 1975, it was clear that the regime couldn't go on unchanged. Spain was the only country in Europe... Continue reading "Spanish Democratic Transition After Franco" »

Chiang Kai-shek

Nationalist leader of China’s imperial army. A member of the KMT (Kuomintang) who took over for Sun Yat-sen after his death. He became an autocratic dictator, originally aligned with the CCP but later turned against them. He eventually lost to communist forces and retreated to Taiwan.

Deng Xiaoping

Successor to Mao who opened the Chinese economy. He transitioned the nation toward a command economy with market-oriented reforms, such as Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Key developments included the revival of the rural economy with TVEs, partial privatization, and the Tiananmen Square incident. He reduced state control of the economy and increased the role of market forces.

Jiang Zemin

Successor to Deng. He continued Deng’s economic... Continue reading "Key Figures and Events in Modern Chinese History" »

Assyrian Occupation and Rebellion

The Assyrian army conquered nations, torturing and exiling those who posed a threat. The Jews in the south prepared for an attack by building a water tunnel to bring water into Jerusalem.

Assyrian Conquest and Jewish Salvation

The Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel, exiling many of its people. The Jews in the south were saved from an attack by a plague that killed the Assyrian army.

Babylonian Exile

The Babylonians conquered Assyria and expanded their empire. The wealthy and skilled Jews were exiled to Babylonia.

Life in Babylonia

Despite the exile, the Jews maintained their faith and did not assimilate with the Babylonians.

Life in Judea vs. Babylonia

The Jews in Judea were poor, while those in Babylonia... Continue reading "Jewish History: From Assyrian Occupation to the Hasmonean Dynasty" »

Symbolism and Satire in Gulliver's Travels

Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels is a masterpiece of satire, where nearly every element acts as a symbol, criticizing contemporary philosophies and customs of English society. Let's explore the allegories, metaphors, and satire Swift employs through Gulliver's various voyages.

Voyage 1: Lilliput

Gulliver's first voyage to Lilliput is rife with symbolism:

• The Egg Controversy: The debate over which end to break a boiled egg, Big-Endians versus Little-Endians, allegorizes the religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in England.
• High Heels and Low Heels: The political parties of England, specifically the Tories (conservatives) and Whigs (liberals), are represented by the Lilliputians' footwear

Origins of Cuneiform Diplomacy

The earliest evidence of diplomacy appears in ancient royal inscriptions. Royal "envoys," or messengers, are explicitly mentioned. For instance, a king of Lagash sent his envoys to Umma, establishing a "brotherhood" between the kings of Lagash and Uruk.

Core Features of the System

Basic features of early cuneiform diplomacy found in Ancient Near Eastern archaeological discoveries include:

• The obligation to reciprocity
• A code of correct international custom (protocol)
• An ethic of communication and negotiation

While Ancient Near Eastern diplomacy may be elementary, its assumptions about the world of interstate relations prefigure our own international system. It was so well-adopted that it lasted for 2,000 years.

The Sargonic