Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Christian Kingdoms: Regional Development

Upon the death of Sancho el Mayor of Pamplona, his son Fernando I received and took the title of King of Castile and León, defeating Bermuda III, the monarch of Tamara, and annexing their domains. After facing his brother García de Pamplona, he occupied territories in western Vizcaya and Álava.

From the 11th century, the progress of the northern kingdoms to the south intensified. The border of the Duero was overcome, and the troops of Fernando I conquered Coimbra. Pilgrimages through the Camino de Santiago introduced lifestyles and cultural manifestations from beyond the Pyrenees.

Division and Consolidation of Power

Fernando I's will divided his dominions between his sons: Alfonso VI received León, Sancho...

Political Model of the Spanish Restoration (1874)

The Restoration of 1874 marked a return to a monarchy and a conservative political system. Cánovas del Castillo, a key figure, aimed to establish a liberal political system. The Constitution of 1876 was a cornerstone of this era, featuring:

• Sovereignty

  Shared between the king and the nation.

• Censitary Suffrage

  Limited to approximately 5% of the population, primarily those with high incomes. In 1880, universal male suffrage was introduced, requiring voters to be at least 25 years old. An open list system allowed voters to choose individual candidates rather than parties.

• Separation of Powers

  Legislative Branch: A bicameral parliament consisting of the Congress (representing national sovereignty through

Symbolism of the New Byzantine Buildings

The division of the Roman world into two, the West and the East, meant the separation of two worlds. The emergence of artistic and Byzantine iconography differed. Byzantine buildings are structured around the central dome. The difference between the cemetery and the new Byzantine churches lies in the system employed, and their system of buttressing. In Byzantine buildings, the domes do not rely directly on the wall, but they do so through the scallops in huge piers.

Not only was there a variety of floor plans, but also a variety of interior decoration, predominantly gold ornamentation. The increase in gold was due not only to the identification of the divinity with gold but also to the conception of power...

1. The Outbreak of the French Revolution

1.1 The Causes of the Revolution

In 1789, France was in an economic and social crisis. For one thing, poor harvests and rising prices had been occurring since 1760. On the other hand, the bourgeoisie were dissatisfied with their political marginalization. Besides, the monarchy was in a deep financial crisis.

1.2 The Beginning of the Revolution: 1789

The French Revolution began with a revolt of the aristocracy. The privileged refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General, the only body that could adopt a social reform. The Estates-General opened at Versailles in 1789, chaired by the king, and formed by representatives of the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate.

1.3 The

Renaissance: A Cultural Rebirth

The Renaissance was a profound and complex transformation of human culture, impacting all aspects of life.

Origins of the Renaissance

• The rising importance of the bourgeoisie.
• Economic prosperity fostered a positive outlook on life.
• Intellectuals rediscovered classical Greek works and sought to emulate their themes, forms, and lifestyles.
• Five wealthy and powerful Italian city-states acted as patrons of the arts.
• Fifteenth-century Italian culture benefited from the works of three literary geniuses.
• The invention of printing.

Humanism

Humanism was an intellectual and cultural movement originating in 14th-century Italy that spread throughout Europe in the following centuries.

Characteristics of Humanism

• Study of classical

Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship: An Introduction

At the time of Primo de Rivera's rise, Europe was witnessing the emergence of fascism, with figures like Hitler and Mussolini gaining prominence and influencing political climates across the continent. The preceding Spanish Restoration era had failed to resolve deep-seated political, economic, and social issues. The devastating defeat in the Battle of Annual further exacerbated national discontent.

The 1923 Coup d'État

Miguel Primo de Rivera initiated his coup by occupying official institutions. He then issued a manifesto outlining his reasons for intervention, calling for collaboration against the perceived failures of the Restoration government. Initially, he received support from only two military...

The Roaring Twenties in the United States

The Roaring Twenties in the United States, which met between 1922 and 1929, saw a dramatic growth in both industrial production and exports. This period first experienced a strong boost in new industries, including:

• Automobile industry
• Electric industries (electricity, phone, cinema)
• Manufacturing and appliances (refrigerators, radios)
• Chemical industry (oil refining, tires, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products)
• Aviation industry
• Development of new energy sources (electricity and oil)

The automobile industry became the symbol of new manufacturing times. Its production quadrupled, and it imposed mass production methods. We applied new methods of work rationalization (Taylorism) and standardized production chains...

Basque Nationalism

Throughout the nineteenth century, the successive defeats in the Carlist Wars affected the Basque Country. The Fueros were phased out in a complicated process, initiated by the Act of October 25, 1839, on Reform of the Basque Privileges, culminating in the Law of July 21, 1876, which resulted in the final settlement of the Regional Order.

Defending Basque privileges remained linked to the Carlist cause in the nineteenth century. The successive defeats of the absolutists led to the abolition of the charters in 1876. In Biscay, the bourgeoisie, enriched by the emerging Industrial Revolution, was not the social field in which Basque nationalism was born.

The Basque Nationalist Party, PNV (Euzko Alderdi Jeltzalea, EAJ), was founded...

The Crisis of 1917 in Spain: A Turning Point

In 1917, a serious crisis emerged in Spain, exposing the inherent weaknesses of the Canovista system. This period was marked by significant internal and external pressures.

Causes of the Crisis

• Internal Division and Policy Vacuum: The dynastic parties suffered from deep internal divisions and a notable lack of relevant policies to address the nation's growing challenges.
• Economic Impact of World War I: Although Spain was neutral, the First World War provoked a sharp global price rise for essential products. This led to a significant decrease in the purchasing power of the working class, fueling widespread discontent.
• Influence of the Russian Revolution: The success of the Russian Revolution in 1917 awakened

The Regency of Maria Cristina

Upon the death of Ferdinand VII, the coronation of Elizabeth II was carried out. However, because she was a minor, her mother, Maria Cristina, exercised the regency. This period coincided with the start of the First Carlist War, leading the regent to seek support from the Liberals to maintain the future Queen Elizabeth II on the throne. To this end, she moved away from absolutism, although the ruler's idea was to carry out some administrative changes while essentially leaving the political system unchanged. She appointed Cea Bermudez, a moderate absolutist, as prime minister. His most notable work was carried out by Javier de Burgos, which involved the division of Spain into 49 provinces in 1833, placing a civil...