Evolution of Diplomacy in the Ancient Near East

Origins of Cuneiform Diplomacy

The earliest evidence of diplomacy appears in ancient royal inscriptions. Royal "envoys," or messengers, are explicitly mentioned. For instance, a king of Lagash sent his envoys to Umma, establishing a "brotherhood" between the kings of Lagash and Uruk.

Core Features of the System

Basic features of early cuneiform diplomacy found in Ancient Near Eastern archaeological discoveries include:

• The obligation to reciprocity
• A code of correct international custom (protocol)
• An ethic of communication and negotiation

While Ancient Near Eastern diplomacy may be elementary, its assumptions about the world of interstate relations prefigure our own international system. It was so well-adopted that it lasted for 2,000 years.

The Sargonic Era and International Treaties

Cuneiform diplomacy was refined and spread across the Ancient Near East and beyond when it entered a new phase with Sargonic hegemony. The Sargonic dynasty introduced the international treaty, which often involved a marriage alliance.

Another modern type of treaty contained commercial provisions, such as:

• Granting foreign traders extraterritorial rights
• Dealing with the taxation of foreigners
• Regulating trade and damages

The Rise of the Diplomatic Corps

Historical records indicate the existence of a diplomatic corps—a community of ambassadors in a single city. These officials received accommodation and enjoyed hospitality from the palace, including servants and gifts. Foreign affairs were handled by a state secretariat responsible for sending emissaries.

Ranks and Diplomatic Immunity

Envoys were ranked from plain messengers to ambassadors plenipotentiary—individuals who could negotiate and conclude agreements. These ambassadors were entitled to protection from harm and possessed formal diplomatic immunity. With the emergence of diplomatic passports and letters of accreditation, diplomacy in the Ancient Near East developed further.

The Amarna Letters and the Great Kings

Six "great kings" are mentioned in the Amarna letters, each with his own language, culture, and gods. Peace was maintained through several key factors:

• Parity between the powers
• Spheres of influence
• Buffer zones

There was a strong sense of brotherhood among the great kings; the legitimacy of one strengthened the other. Kings used diplomacy to promote their personal relations and the national interests of the city-states over which they ruled.