Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Radical-CEDA Biennium: The Revolution of 1934

The dissolution of parliament in September 1933 ended the alliance between the Radical Party and the Socialists under Azaña. The right wing reorganized during the biennium, with two main trends. First, the opposition to the Republic, including Monarchists, Traditionalists, and Fascists (JONS, Falange Española), who merged in 1934. Second, the Republican right, composed of CEDA and Acción Popular. The political campaign was very tense, revealing a deep division in society. The Socialists considered CEDA and its leader, Gil Robles, to be fascist and threatened a revolution if the right won the elections. The right, in turn, regarded the Socialists as revolutionary, aiming to revise the Constitution...

Renaissance Architecture

General Overview

Renaissance architecture, grounded in reason and numerical principles, moved away from purely technical considerations. It drew inspiration from classical antiquity, incorporating elements like capitals, pilasters, columns, and arches. Colored marble adorned the structures, and windows were transformed, often framed by columns or pilasters supporting triangular pediments. Wooden ceilings were replaced with barrel vaults, domes, or groin vaults. Churches adopted central (Greek cross) or basilica plans. Homes for the nobility and bourgeoisie gained prominence, exemplified by palaces with central courtyards, towers, and rooms arranged around a central axis, featuring ornate windows, cornices, and grand...

The French Revolution: A Transformative Era

The question was important: what was at stake was the idea of national sovereignty. The monarch and part of the nobility only accepted the dual representation, and the deputies of the Third Estate were erected in the National Assembly and pledged to draw up a constitution that reflected the will of the majority of the French.

The End of the Old Regime

The people of Paris supported the representatives of the Third Estate in the streets. They assaulted the Bastille, took up arms, and were available to defend the revolutionary process by force. The revolution also extended to the field in the form of an anti-feudal rebellion (The Great Fear). Given the popular radicalization, the National Constituent Assembly...

The Nature of World War I in Europe

The conflict between Germany and France highlighted the obsolescence of traditional warfare. Mobilizing thousands of soldiers proved ineffective; the era of grand battles and decisive cavalry confrontations was over. World War I became a defensive war, characterized by trench warfare, where armies were locked in stalemate. Victory was elusive.

Technological advancements favored defensive positions, making major offensives nearly impossible. Gains of even 100 meters or 1 kilometer came at the cost of thousands of lives. The United States' entry into the war in 1917 marked a turning point. As a leading industrial power, its financial resources, vast reserves, and rapid mobilization of troops tipped the balance...

The French Revolution

The French Revolution: In 1789, King Louis XVI convened the assembly to announce new taxes to improve the economy. However, the privileged refused to renounce their advantages. Before 1789, members of the Third Estate proclaimed a National Assembly, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

1st Stage: Moderate Revolution (1789-1792)

Louis XVI sent troops to Paris, triggering a reaction from the people who stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power.

2nd Stage: Republic and Reign of Terror (1792-1795)

In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France, aiming to restore the Ancien Régime. The radical Jacobins, supported by the people of Paris, seized power, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the Republic....

Economic and Social Developments in 17th Century Spain

Economic and Social Developments in the Seventeenth Century: Generally, one can speak of an economic depression with a mild recovery in the last third of the century (during the reign of Charles II).

• Agriculture: Productivity was very low due to a lack of manpower and archaic methods. The areas of irrigation show the impact of the expulsion of the Moors.
• Husbandry: There was a major decline in transhumance due to the difficulty of exporting wool.
• Industry: Since the previous century, Spain lost competitiveness compared to northern Europe due to inflation and the rising crisis in wages. From 1620, there was a decline in the interior wool textile industry.
• Commerce: Trade was hampered by poor

Primo de Rivera's Manifesto: Announcing the Coup

We are facing a historical, political source. It is a manifest that Primo de Rivera performs, addressed to the Spanish population, announcing the reasons for the coup and the first steps taken. The author (individual) is Miguel Primo de Rivera (1870-1930), an important military man who got his promotion through participation in colonial wars (Morocco, Philippines...). Since 1922, he was the Captain General of Catalonia, where he distinguished himself by supporting the Catalan bourgeoisie against social protests. After the coup in which he stars, he ruled Spain in a dictatorial manner until 1930, when the king withdrew his confidence. Shortly after, he died in exile.

The Context of the Coup

At the...

The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)

Early Years and Marriage

Isabella II began her reign at the age of 13 in 1833. Three years later, she married her cousin, Francisco de Asís, a husband imposed by government interests. The marriage was a failure, as the couple reportedly hated each other.

Dominance of the Moderates (1844-1854)

During Isabella II's reign, the Moderate Party held significant power. The Queen entrusted them with forming governments, excluding the Progressives. The Progressives, in turn, opted for either exclusion from government or violent uprisings, such as military revolts. The Moderates remained in power between 1844 and 1854, with Ramón María Narváez notably holding the premiership on several occasions.

This period, marked...

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1885-1902)

Upon the death of Alfonso XII, his wife, Maria Cristina of Hapsburg, assumed the regency with the support of the dynastic parties. They signed the Pact of Pardo, agreeing to maintain the monarchy, rotate political power, and uphold legislative measures. Maria Cristina entrusted power to the Liberals, led by Sagasta, who governed between 1885 and 1890, a period known as the Long Parliament.

The Liberals implemented a program of liberalization, developing advanced reforms and consolidating the political system. They approved the Commercial Code and Civil Code (1889), aligning with the tenets of economic and political liberalism. Legal protection was extended to the burgeoning agrarian capitalism and landlordism....