Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Agrarian Reform

The Agrarian Reform was initially applied in 1932 to the estates of southern Spain. It was later extended to the whole country. Small and medium landowners strongly opposed the reforms, which were implemented very slowly. The central government reform was not satisfactory for anyone.

Labor Reforms

These reforms were the work of Largo Caballero. They created a new framework for relations between employers and workers and established a labor law for the agricultural sector. The main measures were:

• The Law of Labor Contracts
• The Law of Mixed Juries
• The Law of Municipal Terms
• The Law of Compulsory Tillage
• The Law of Accidents in the Field
• The imposition of an eight-hour workday in agriculture

Other reforms, such as the Worker Intervention...

The Moderate Decade (1845-1854)

Supported by the bourgeoisie, the reactionary moderates returned to power. They enacted new laws, limiting progressive influence and restoring the relationship with the Church by signing the Concordat of 1851. The Holy See was weakened by the confiscation of Mendizabal. With a centralized policy, they unified the rights of the tax system and education and created the Civil Guard. The Constitution of 1845 was quickly adopted to uphold the principles of liberalism based on a census. It established shared sovereignty between the courts and the king, a bicameral system where the Senate was composed of members appointed by the king for life, and the House of Representatives was composed of members elected by a vote...

Spain and the First World War: The Crisis of 1917

In 1913, the conservative government of Eduardo Dato was formed. Spain maintained a position of neutrality in the European conflict. Spanish society, however, was divided, taking sides with one or the other opponent, resulting in strong controversy:

• Germanophiles: The upper classes, the Church, the Army, and even the King favored the Central Empires (Germany and Austria), representatives of authority and order.
• Allied Supporters: Those with more progressive leanings favored the Allied powers (France and England), who had ideals of democracy.

Neutrality favored a major economic expansion, and Spain became a supplier of industrial and agricultural products to all belligerents. This brought increased...

The Crisis of 1640: Rebellions and Reforms

The reforms initiated by the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of Philip IV, sought to strengthen royal authority and achieve greater unity among the various kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. To this end, Olivares increased the tax burden and proposed the Union of Arms, which aimed to maintain a large army to consolidate Spanish hegemony in Europe. This policy mandated that all kingdoms of the monarchy (not just Castile, as previously) contribute men and money to the military effort. This provoked strong opposition, especially in the Crown of Aragon.

In 1640, discontent with the Count-Duke's policies erupted into two open rebellions: those of Catalonia and Portugal.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)

The revolt...

Cortes of Cadiz

The Central Board, amidst the power vacuum caused by the King's absence, assumed sovereignty and decided to reform the country's government by convening Parliament. A Regency was appointed in 1810 to convene the parliament. In its first meeting, it proclaimed the principles of national sovereignty and national representation.

Ideological Trends

From an ideological standpoint, the deputies of the Cortes of Cadiz were organized into three distinct trends:

• Absolutists: Supporters of the *ancien régime*.
• Liberals: Stood for freedom, equality, and property rights.
• Jovellanistas: Represented a middle way between absolutists and liberals.

Composition and Impact

The composition of the Cortes of Cadiz, largely composed of members, favored the...

The Referendum and its Aftermath

Following the success of the 1976 referendum, the government faced challenges in consolidating the transition to democracy. Despite calls for abstention by the opposition, the referendum passed, marking a crucial step forward. However, the period following the referendum was fraught with tension and violence.

On December 23, 1976, police arrested Santiago Carrillo, the leader of the Communist Party of Spain (PCE). Recognizing the potential repercussions of detaining a prominent political figure, the government released Carrillo eight days later. This event highlighted the delicate balance the government had to maintain during the transition.

The government's efforts to restore democratic security and ensure free...

A Dictatorial Regime
The Franco regime was a dictatorship that, depending on international political circumstances, evolved over time. Its most notable characteristics were:

• Born as a dictatorship inspired by fascist totalitarianism.
• Abolished the 1931 Constitution, popular sovereignty, political parties, and trade unions.
• Only allowed the existence of a single party and an official union.

Franco was the leader, the "charismatic leader" who ran the state government and served as president for much of the dictatorship. Moreover, he was Generalissimo of all the armies and the national party leader. He was not an elected leader and was only answerable to God and history.

The regime had a unitary and centralist conception of the state, abolishing autonomous...

The Spanish Civil War

Causes of the War

The causes that gave rise to the Spanish Civil War include:

• Ending the chaos that existed.
• Fear of the ruling classes of being removed by a social revolution.
• European instability, which made it a prologue to World War II.

The Uprising

Emilio Mola attempted an uprising in Madrid to end the Second Republic, but failed. This prolonged the conflict, giving way to the Spanish Civil War.

Beginning of the Conflict

The war started on July 17, 1936, in Morocco, where Franco was in charge. The next day, it extended to the Iberian Peninsula.

• Conservative ideology regions (Navarra, Galicia, and Castilla y León) supported the uprising.
• In Andalusia, the rebels came to power, albeit precariously.
• The uprising in Madrid and Barcelona

The Al-Andalus from Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries

After the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba (1031), the weak Taifa kingdoms emerged, and Christian rule gradually replaced Muslim dominance in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Historical Evolution of Al-Andalus

Following the conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI (1085) until the end of the fifteenth century, Al-Andalus was controlled first by the Almoravids and later by the Almohads. Ultimately, it was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada.

The Almoravids

The Almoravids were Berber nomads who established a vast empire in North Africa in the early eleventh century. In 1086, invited by the Taifa kings, they entered the peninsula. After defeating the Christians at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086), they imposed their...

The Cold War

The Cold War was a model of international relations that developed after World War II. It was based on antagonism between the blocs led by the United States and the Soviet Union. These powers engaged in a long confrontation, stopping short of direct military conflict between the two superpowers. Instead, they participated in an extensive arms race and adopted belligerent stances. The tension between the blocs also led to the use of espionage, propaganda, and other 'dirty tricks', justified as necessary to defend against the opposing bloc.

Conflicts of the Cold War

Korean War

At the end of World War II, Korea was divided, with the North occupied by Soviet troops and the South by American forces. Despite an agreement to establish a single...