Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Persian Wars: Athenian Triumph

In the 5th century BC, the Persians (Medes), an eastern power, had subjected the Greek city-states of Asia Minor and set out to conquer Greece in what became known as the Persian Wars.

In 490 BC, the Persians landed on the plain of Marathon, but were repulsed by an army of Athenian hoplites.

Ten years later, the Athenians returned to defeat the Persians in the decisive naval Battle of Salamis. The maritime Persians, finally defeated, left Greece.

Athens Dominates Greece: The Delian League

The victory over the Persians awarded Athens a dominant role over the other Greek city-states. This led to the formation of the Delian League, a partnership led by Athens. The city-states contributed money to maintain a navy,...

Introduction

The flagpole Regency period saw Maria Cristina, Cuba transition from a Spanish colony to a burgeoning metropolis. The Cuban question has several precedents: first, the independence of the colonies was a difficult process between 1808 and 1824, leading to the independence of almost all Spanish colonies, isolating them from the metropolis. This independence had the following reasons:

• Internal: The War of Independence and the policies of Charles III.
• External: The politics of Britain, U.S. independence, and the "Monroe Doctrine."

Key players included Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. Bolivar's phases were:

• 1810-1816: Early independence movement, taking advantage of Spain's weak position.
• 1810-1820: Insurrections led by San Martin and

Ferdinand VII's Reign: Absolutism and Liberalism in Spain

The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)

In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and, with the support of the army, nobility, and clergy, as outlined in the Manifesto of the Persians, staged a coup on May 4th. This marked a return to absolutism, part of the broader European restoration of the Old Regime. This period, known as the Absolutist Sexennium, was characterized by continuous political instability. The economic situation was disastrous, with falling prices worsening the plight of the peasantry and triggering successive protest movements. Discontent spread to the cities and the army, as state expenditures exceeded revenues, leading to state bankruptcy. Meanwhile, liberals began to reorganize...

Vietnam's Economic Future: Growth and Stability

Vietnam’s political stability is closely tied to its economic performance. Unlike other one-party regimes that base their legitimacy on ideology, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) derives its authority from delivering sustained prosperity—a reflection of the Confucian notion that rulers remain legitimate as long as they ensure national well-being.

Today, Vietnam’s economic fundamentals are strong: unemployment is low, poverty is declining, and growth remains steady. These outcomes reinforce the Party’s image as an effective steward of development.

But as Vietnam climbs toward middle-income status, the stakes grow higher. The country now faces the classic dilemma of the middle-income trap—where...

End of Isabel II's Reign and Political Unrest

In the final years of Isabel II's reign, political, economic, and social unrest spread throughout Spain.

Factors Leading to Isabel II's Downfall

• The economic crisis led to rural and urban revolts.
• Progressives, Republicans, and Democrats were excluded from the government and rejected the conservatism of the ruling powers.
• The bourgeoisie and the army distanced themselves from the regime due to its authoritarianism.
• The Queen grew increasingly unpopular.

The Pact of Ostend (1866)

In 1866, Progressives, Democrats, and Republicans signed the Pact of Ostend, in which they agreed to overthrow Isabel II and establish a democratic Spain. The Unión Liberal joined the pact in 1868.

The 1868 Revolution: La Gloriosa

In...

The Origins and Alliances of World War I

WWI, or The Great War, broke out in Europe in 1914 and covered a large territorial extension. The conflict involved two primary factions:

• The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, which Bulgaria and other states joined later.
• The Allies or Triple Entente: France, Russia, the UK, and Serbia, which the USA and other countries joined later.

Major Causes of the Great War

Political and Territorial Conflicts

Political conflicts between the major powers arose due to territorial disputes and nationalistic problems, such as the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Additional tensions stemmed from colonialism and imperialism, including clashes between imperialist powers for the control of certain...

The Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization

On the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the main urban settlements that were to play a leading role in the three millennia of Mesopotamian history emerged. The periodic overflowing of their banks irrigated and enriched the surrounding land, allowing intensive agricultural exploitation. This favored the appearance of stable settlements and their development. Cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Assur, Mari, and Babylon, among many others, arose, governed independently from a temple-palace.

Mesopotamian Society and Governance

The temple-palace organized the economy and held the political and military monopoly, as it was where the production and surplus from their economic activities were stored. Society...

The Russian Revolution: Key Events, Causes, and Outcomes

The February Revolution (1917)

The uprising in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in February 1917 culminated in the February Revolution. The monarchy fell and was replaced by two bodies:

1. The Provisional Government: Created to organize elections for a Duma. Alexander Kerensky took control of this government.
2. The Petrograd Soviet: Represented the workers and soldiers.

The Bolshevik Slogan

The Bolsheviks' slogan was:

• Peace: An end to World War I.
• Bread: Relief from the prevalent hunger.
• Land: Redistribution of land owned by the aristocracy.

The October Revolution (1917)

The Bolsheviks seized power in an uprising planned by Leon Trotsky, the president of the Petrograd Soviet. The Bolsheviks formed a new government,...

Sex and Gender in the Ancient World - Final Exam

Homer— patriarchal society: men hold positions of power and influence, the Iliad focuses on the actions of male warriors, leaders, gods, highlighting the dominance of men in both the mortal and divine realms. Glorifies the virtues associated with masculinity (bravery, physical strength, bravery in battle). The heroism of characters like Achilles and Hector is deeply tied to their adherence to a warrior code that values martial prowess and honor. Women were portrayed in domestic roles. Responsible for activities like weaving and managing the household. The women: Helen and Andromache, have limited agency in the public sphere and are largely defined by their relationships with men. Despite not...

CAUSES: The Great Depression

The Great Depression. European nations sought their own solutions such as applying protectionist measures and competition for markets. Totalitarian regimes. When the Nazis implemented an aggressive policy to compensate for the 'humiliation', the neighboring countries opted for a policy of appeasement, which was unsuccessful and two opposing blocs were formed. Militarism and rearmament. Since Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by rearming, aggressive speech, military parades, and uniforms once again became commonplace in Europe. Territorial conflicts and expansionism. The old conflicts reignited in the territories that had passed into the hands of other nations after the First World War and Germany reasserted...