Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Holocaust

Exclusion (1933-1939)

The first measure was the exclusion of Jews from public life, preventing them from earning a living. Books written by Jews were burned. In 1935, Hitler introduced the Nuremberg Laws, which deprived Jews of their German citizenship and banned marriage between Germans and Jews.

Ghettoes (1939-1940)

These were closed-off city neighborhoods where all Jewish residents were required to live together. The main ghettos were in Poland.

Extermination (1941-1945)

Jews were killed in gas chambers and cremation ovens.

The Peace Settlement

Yalta and Potsdam Conferences (1945)

1) Yalta

• Germany would be divided into occupied zones.
• Stalin promised to hold free elections in Eastern Europe, although they never took place.
• The USSR would

Isabella II reigned between 1843 and 1868. Her reign meant the consolidation of Spain as a liberal State. She always preferred the moderates to rule and she called them to government in 1844.

MODERATE DECADE (1844-1854)

The moderates ruled for a decade. The strong man of this period was General Narváez. In this period a liberal conservative and centralized State consolidated, with the support of the aristocracy, the Church and the conservative bourgeoisie.

A new Constitution was written in 1845: sovereignty was shared between the monarch and the people and the State identified with Catholic religion. All the State, except from the Basque Provinces and Navarre, was submitted to the same laws. Tax collection was improved, a Criminal Code was approved... Continue reading "Isabella II: Reign, Politics, and Downfall" »

Key European Alliances (1879-1914)

• 1879 – Dual Alliance

  Germany and Austria-Hungary formed this alliance to protect themselves from Russia.

• 1882 – Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed this alliance to prevent Italy from aligning with Russia.

• 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance

  Russia and France allied to protect against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

• 1904 – The Entente Cordiale

  An agreement between Britain and France, recognizing colonial possessions and reducing tensions.

• 1907 – The Anglo-Russian Entente

  An agreement between Britain and Russia regarding spheres of influence in Asia.

• 1907 – The Triple Entente

  Formed by the previous agreements, uniting France, Britain, and Russia.

• 1914 – The Triple Entente Agreement

  Members agreed

How the principles & mission of NATO changed since 1949. Illustrate its 2010.

NATO was created in 1945 during the Cold War as a military alliance of countries from the EU and North America. It is currently the most highly organized security organization with 28 member countries, and its purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.

After 1991, the main goal became to create democracies and a community of values by contributing to overall Euro-Atlantic security. On a political dimension, NATO promotes democratic values, encourages consultation and cooperation on defense and security issues. On the military level, if diplomatic efforts fail, the organization has the military capacity to... Continue reading "Evolution of NATO: From Cold War Alliance to 21st Century Security Organization" »

The Provisional Government (1868-1870)

After the deposition of Isabella II, the Progressive Party and the Liberal Union formed a Provisional Government (1868-1870).

Key Decisions

• Call elections to Constituent Cortes: these Cortes wrote the Constitution of 1869, a democratic Constitution, with a wide declaration of rights, universal male suffrage and a Parliamentary Monarchy.
• The peseta was declared the official currency.
• Search for a new king: the progressive General Prim was in charge of looking for a new king for the country. After several candidates, Amadeus of Savoy was chosen. He arrived in Spain at the end of 1870.

This democratic period allowed the arrival of propagandists of the International Workingmen’s Association, and the first anarchist... Continue reading "Spanish History: Provisional Government to Restoration" »

Napoleon's Rise to Power

• 1799: Seized control of the Directory through a coup d'état, establishing a three-man Consulate with himself as First Consul.
• 1802: Proclaimed himself Consul for life.
• 1804: Crowned himself Emperor.
• Democratic Despotism: Held absolute power despite holding plebiscites.

Napoleon's Reforms

1. Class System/Society:
   • Nobles who fled France could return if they swore loyalty.
   • Peasants kept their lands.
   • New nobility established based on meritocracy.
2. Economy: Controlled prices, fostered industrial growth, and strengthened the nation's infrastructure.
3. Government: Strengthened the national government and established an efficient bureaucracy.
4. Laws: Instituted equality before the law, religious tolerance, and the end of feudalism. However, women

The Causes of World War II

The Second World War was a vast conflict fought in Europe, Asia and other parts of the world. It was a conflict between the Axis powers, led by Germany, Italy and Japan, and the Allied powers that included Britain, the USSR, France and (from 1941) the United States.

• The impact of World War I: the peace treaties: Germany lost territory, and its economy was damaged by the need to pay war reparations.

• The rise of fascism and nationalism: many people feared that there would be a communist revolution in their own countries, people considered that fascism and extreme nationalism were the most effective way to combat communism.

• The weakness of democracies: democracies like Britain and France wanted to avoid a new war at any

Chapter 1: Buck's Life Changes

The story introduces the main character, Buck, a four-year-old dog living the comfortable life of an aristocrat on Judge Miller's estate in California. His life changes drastically when Manuel, an assistant gardener struggling with gambling debts, kidnaps and sells him. Buck endures cruel treatment and painful nights, learning the harsh "law of club" from men with cudgels. He is eventually sold to two French-Canadians, Francois and Perrault, who work as dispatchers in the North.

Chapter 2: Learning the Law of Fang

In the harsh Northland, Buck learns another vital rule: the "law of fang", essential for survival among the other sled dogs. He begins to adapt, shedding his civilized ways for the brutal realities of life... Continue reading "The Call of the Wild: Buck's Transformation Summary" »

The Great Depression: Causes, Crash, and Recovery

Causes of the Great Depression

After World War I, the USA emerged as the world's leading economic power. However, underlying issues soon led to a severe economic downturn.

The Roaring Twenties

This period was characterized by significant economic prosperity in the USA, marked by:

• Consumerism: A burgeoning consumer society with widespread adoption of household appliances, automobiles, and new fashion trends.
• Urban Growth: Rapid expansion of cities, symbolized by the construction of skyscrapers.
• Modern Culture: The rise of cinema, the Jazz Age, Swing dance, Art Deco, and evolving fashion.

Stock Market Bubble

Fueled by rising consumption, workers began buying on credit. Businessmen borrowed heavily from... Continue reading "America's Economic Collapse: The Great Depression Era" »

French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• This war provided Great Britain enormous territorial gains in North America.
• Disputes over subsequent frontier policy and paying the war's expenses led to colonial discontent and the American Revolution.

Key Figures in the American Revolution

George Washington

• Virginia plantation owner
• 1st President of the United States
• Served as a general and commander-in-chief of colonial armies during the American Revolutionary War.

Continental Army (aka the Revolutionary War Army)

• Led by George Washington
• Authorized by the Continental Congress

John Adams

• 1st Vice President, 2nd President of the USA
• Major figure of the American Revolution, shaping of the Constitution
• Drafting of the Declaration of Independence

Samuel Adams (Revolutionary