Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Essential Vocabulary List

• Impute: To attribute an action to a particular person or group.
• Incompatible: Opposed in nature; not able to live or work together.
• Inconsequential: Unimportant; trivial.
• Inevitable: Certain; unavoidable.
• Integrity: Decency, honesty, wholeness.
• Intrepid: Fearless, adventurous.
• Intuitive: Instinctive, untaught.
• Jubilation: Joy, celebration, exultation.
• Lobbyist: A person who seeks to influence political events.
• Longevity: Long life.
• Mundane: Ordinary, commonplace.
• Nonchalant: Calm, casual, seeming unexcited.
• Novice: Apprentice, beginner.
• Opulent: Wealthy.
• Orator: Lecturer, speaker.
• Ostentatious: Showy, displaying wealth.
• Parched: Dried up, shriveled.
• Perfidious: Faithless, disloyal, untrustworthy.
• Precocious: Unusually advanced or talented

Church of La Vera Cruz, Segovia (12th Century)

• Centralized scheme floorplan
• Based on Dome of the Rock & Holy Sepulchre
• Central edicule
• Three apses head
• Quadrilateral bell tower
• Twelve-sided plan
• Two floors
• Buttresses
• Ribbed vault & Caliphal dome

Holy Sepulchre, Torres del Rio, Navarra (12th Century)

• C Templarios
• Octagonal plan
• Tower to get to the lantern
• Mudejar precedents
• Arabic star-shaped dome
• Apse in East
• Archivolts
• Parallel ribs
• Stone dome
• Pointed/midpoint arches

Templarios de Eunate Church, Navarra (12th Century)

• External cloister enclosing the Church
• East apse
• Tower with spiral stairs
• Ribs in dome pass through center
• Octagonal plan
• Dome starts in columns
• Midpoint arch

Cathedrals of St. James (11th Century)

• Central nave with barrel vaults
• Arches and transversal

Causes of the Popular Front in the Second Republic

The Popular Front (Frente Popular) was a Spanish left-wing coalition formed in 1936 during the Second Republic. It emerged due to several critical factors:

1. Political Polarization: Spain was divided between left-wing and right-wing groups. The left wanted to fight the rising power of right-wing movements.
2. Social and Political Reforms: The Popular Front aimed to continue reforms started by the first government of the Republic, including land redistribution.
3. Response to 1934 Repression: The coalition wanted to free political prisoners jailed after the Asturian miners' strike.
4. Corruption Scandals: A corruption case called the Estrapero scandal discredited the Radical Party, forcing the dissolution of

The American Revolution (1775–1783)

The American Revolution was the struggle through which the thirteen American colonies gained independence from Britain and formed the United States of America. It was influenced by ideas of liberty, democracy, and self-government.

Causes of the American Revolution

1. Political Causes

• The colonies had no representation in the British Parliament.
• Colonists opposed British taxes with the slogan, “No taxation without representation.”
• Britain increased control over colonial administration after the Seven Years' War.

2. Economic Causes

• Britain followed mercantilism and used the colonies for its economic benefit.

Important Taxes and Acts

• Sugar Act (1764) – Tax on sugar imports.
• Stamp Act (1765) – Tax on printed documents.

Colonial History and Independence in Africa

• Algeria (North Africa): A French colony from 1830 to 1962, it was previously part of the Ottoman Empire. It is 99% Islamic and was subject to Napoleon's plans.
• Libya (North Africa): Under Ottoman rule from 1551 to 1911, it then fell to Italy under Mussolini. It gained independence in 1953.
• Morocco (North Africa): Colonized by France and Spain, it gained independence in 1956 through nationalist movements led by the King.
• Somalia (East Africa): Colonized by Italy, the UK, and Spain for its coastal trade value; independence was later marked by military coups.
• Senegal (West Africa): A French colony and the westernmost point of Africa, it was strategic for trade. It underwent peaceful decolonization around

Artistic Masterpieces & Cultural Venues

Famous Paintings of the World

• Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci

  Value: This painting is a symbol of the Renaissance and reflects the genius of da Vinci and the mystery of the female portrait.

• The Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh

  Value: It shows emotional perception of nature and is important for understanding Post-Impressionism.

• Guernica by Pablo Picasso

  Value: This painting symbolizes anti-war protest and reflects the horror of the bombing of Guernica in 1937.

Famous Paintings of Russia

• The Ninth Wave by Ivan Aivazovsky

  Value: This painting shows the beauty of Russian seas and expresses the strong character of the Russian spirit.

• Morning in a Pine Forest by Ivan Shishkin

  Value: It illustrates the beauty of Russian

The End of Bipolarity

Soviet Economy: Strengths and Weaknesses

Positive Aspects of the Soviet Economy

• Rapid industrialization: Five-Year Plans prioritized heavy industry and defense; by 1940, the USSR was the second-largest industrial power.
• Social welfare: High literacy rates, universal healthcare, employment guarantees, and low-cost housing.
• Military and space achievements: Strategic nuclear parity with the US; Sputnik (1957), and the first human in space (1961).
• Global influence: Led the socialist bloc (Warsaw Pact) and supported various anti-colonial movements.

Negative Aspects of the Soviet Economy

• Planning inefficiencies: Chronic shortages of consumer goods and weak responsiveness to market demand.
• Low productivity incentives: State ownership

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

Ronald Reagan served as President of the USA from 1981 to 1988. A staunch conservative and anti-communist leader, he renewed the arms race, which pressured the USSR and eventually contributed to its collapse. Mikhail Gorbachev, the final leader of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), attempted to save the nation through significant reforms:

• Perestroika: Economic restructuring focused on market economy principles and increased consumer goods.
• Glasnost: A policy of transparency, the abolition of censorship, and the introduction of democratic elections.

Causes of the Soviet Bloc Collapse

The crisis of 1991 had roots dating back to 1973. Key factors included:

• Economic Stagnation: The USSR failed to adapt to rising global energy

Independence Movements in the Americas

Though limited to propertied white men, the foundations of liberty were laid during this era. In Spanish and Portuguese America, colonial rule was strictly hierarchical, favoring peninsulares and creoles. Enlightenment influence, economic pressures, and political instability eventually led to widespread independence movements. Key leaders such as Simón Bolívar, Miguel Hidalgo, and José de San Martín played vital roles. Brazil’s independence in 1822 was notably more peaceful. Although independence ended imperial control, new nations often retained elite dominance. Nation-building in the Americas was marked by contradictions: liberty coexisted with exclusion, and revolutionary ideals were unevenly realized.... Continue reading "Revolution and Empire: Shaping the Modern World" »

Key Concepts of the Cold War Era

Defining the Cold War

The Cold War was a period of intense rivalry and tension between the United States (U.S.) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). During this era, the U.S. and USSR engaged in a nuclear arms race, the Space Race, and formed opposing military alliances: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the Warsaw Pact.

Understanding Decolonization

Decolonization was a historical process through which Asian and African colonies of European empires gained independence. This occurred primarily from 1947 to 1975, coinciding with the Cold War and marking the beginning of the Third World. While new states achieved political freedom, they often remained economically dependent on their former... Continue reading "Cold War & Decolonization: Key Events and Concepts" »