Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key Figures in History

Rulers and Leaders

James I

Succeeded Queen Elizabeth I and believed in the divine right of kings.

Oliver Cromwell

Executed Charles I and set up a military dictatorship in England.

Louis XIV

Seen as the perfect example of an absolutist ruler.

Frederick William

Helped Prussia to emerge.

Peter the Great

Tried to Europeanize Russia.

Thinkers and Philosophers

Rene Descartes

Argued that with all the doubt and uncertainty...

John Locke

Argued that each person has natural rights.

Adam Smith

Father of modern economics.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Argued that people adopted laws and government.

Montesquieu

Created the idea of separation of powers and checks and balances.

Scientists and Innovators

Nicolaus Copernicus

Challenged the idea that the Earth was the... Continue reading "A Journey Through History: From Absolutism to Revolutions" »

1. What were Jefferson’s beliefs about the role of government?

He believed in having a limited power but setbacks were in order. He was anti-federalists//jeffersonian republican. He believed in frugality (little spending) and simplicity which means he cut back on some things. He cut back on the army and on government employees. He also wanted to cut back on taxes and resulted in getting rid of the whole national debt. He believed that each states had to have their own rights like education, road maintenance and such. Expansionism

2.In the election of 1800s what were the Federalists afraid of?

Federalists were afraid of revolution and chaos. (Adams) because if Jefferson won the election everything was going to change.

3.In the election of 1800s

• Nation-state was not how political Communities were organized – nationalism is only 200 years old.

(ancient Greece city-states, ancient Indian republics and kingdoms, European monarchs/dynasties in feudal Kingdoms)

• Little agreement among writers on the Exact meaning of ‘nationalism’.

• Nationalism: The belief that a Group of people are united by a common history, tradition, language And culture, and hence they should establish a sovereign political Community of their own – nation.

• Ideology/movement that seeks to Establish a nation-state.

• Belief that the nation is the primary Focus of loyalty, the sole object of people’s allegiance.

• Sense of loyalty that makes people to Live and work within the modern state, even die for the state in

World War II: A Global Conflict

World War II (or the Second World War) was the largest armed conflict in history.

The Rise of Nazi Germany

For years, Germany's economy was weakened by excessive debt and hyperinflation, which caused widespread discontent with the government.

In 1929, the Wall Street Crash in New York triggered the worst economic crisis of the 20^th century. Its impact was so significant that the unemployment rate in Germany exploded. Because of this, nationalist groups like the Nazi Party emerged, seeking to create a "perfect" society (German-speaking, excluding homosexuals, disabled individuals, and others).

In 1933, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party, rose to power. Despite Germany's ban on expanding its military, Hitler'... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Axis vs Allies" »

Luddism: The First Movement

Luddism emerged in the early 19th century as a movement against the use of machines. Workers originally considered machines to be the root of their problems. The movement's leader was Ned Ludd.

Chartism: A Workers' Charter

In 1838, Chartism developed as a movement based on a workers' charter. This charter was sent to Parliament by a committee of workers with various petitions, including demands for universal suffrage and a secret ballot.

The Industrial Revolutions

The First Industrial Revolution occurred almost exclusively in England. The Second Industrial Revolution spread to other European countries and continents, including the USA and Japan. The Third Industrial Revolution took place in the mid-20th century.

The First

The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)

During the reign of Isabella II, Spain's moderate liberal party remained in government. The Moderate Government converted Spain into a conservative and centralist liberal state. In 1845, a new constitution was adopted. Suffrage was restricted, sovereignty shared between the courts and the crown. The state signed the concordat with the Holy See, agreeing to finance the church and stop privatization. In some periods, moderate liberals adopted measures to stop centralist taxes and create penal and national education systems. The political system weakened. The monarchy was politically active, favoring competition among the aristocracy, military, and clergy for the favor of the queen, which led to corruption. Moderates... Continue reading "Spain's Political Landscape: From Moderate Liberals to Republic" »

Mahatma Gandhi: A Life Dedicated to Truth and Non-Violence

Early Life and Influences

Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), affectionately known as Mahatma Gandhi and Bapuji, was born on October 2nd, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. His father served as a Dewan in Porbandar and Rajkot, where Gandhi received his early education. Married at the age of 12 to Kasturbai, he later traveled to London to study law, qualifying for the Bar in 1891.

Gandhi's transformative experience in South Africa (1893-1914), where he fought against racial discrimination and injustice, shaped his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and non-violent resistance. He emerged as a prominent leader and advocate for human dignity.

The Gandhi Era and Indian Independence

Returning... Continue reading "Mahatma Gandhi: Life, Philosophy, and Political Ideals" »

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Literature (449-1066)

Old English literature, also referred to as Anglo-Saxon literature, is dated between 449/600 (the invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) and 1100/1200 (the establishment of Norman rule). It is hypothesized that until the sixth century BC, the British Isles were inhabited by Iberians, and from the sixth to seventh centuries BC by Celts. It also represents the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England.

This period was characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles, resulting in the mixing of several races, languages, and cultures. Life was mostly centered on ancestral tribes or clans. Initially, people... Continue reading "Anglo-Saxon Literature: History, Culture, and Key Works" »

Features in Modern English: Orthography and Phonology

Orthography

Fixing and Reducing Spelling Variation

• Spelling Reform Debate: Spelling reform in accordance with pronunciation was proposed but not successful due to its radical nature (e.g., John Hart's 'An Orthographie').
• Regularization of Spelling: Regularization based on traditional and etymological grounds proved successful.
• Standardization by 1700: By 1700, English largely became standardized, making texts from that period onward relatively easy for modern readers.
• Reflection of Late 15th-Century Pronunciation: Modern orthography reflects the pronunciation of the late 15th century.
• Changes in Orthographic Conventions: Distinction of graphemes u/v and i/j emerged.
• Etymological Respellings: Scholars