Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Between 1814-1815 the powers that defeated Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) met at the Congress of Vienna, with two objectives:

• Restore the old regime

They returned to their thrones the monarchs that Napoleon had deposed.

• Rebuild the political map of Europe

France returned to its limits of 1791 and the territories were divided, without counting on some towns.

It was agreed to convene congresses, where diplomatically conflicts between countries would be resolved and intervention was authorized in those countries threatened by a revolution.

• Two alliances were created to ensure the established order:

• The Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia
• The Quadruple Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, Prussia, and United Kingdom

New

1. Iron Curtain: Division of Europe into mostly democratic (west) and communist (east)

2. Containment: Foreign policy, Harry Truman blocked Soviet influence to stop the spread of communism

3. Brinkmanship: Policy under Eisenhower where our country would go to the edge of war

4. Castro: Cuban Communist dictator

5. Nikita Khrushchev: Took over after Stalin

6. JFK: President 1960-1963 and during Cuban missile crisis

7. Douglas MacArthur: General of UN troops in Korean War

8. Domino Theory: Idea that if one country becomes Communist, others will follow

9. UN: Organization of nations to solve world problems

10. Marshall Plan: US assisted West Europe by providing food, machinery, and materials

11. Cold War: Communist (USSR) vs democracy (America)

12. Warsaw Pact: Alliance of USSR with other Eastern

The French Revolution and Its Political Impact

Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property.

• The government introduced a new paper currency.
• Royalist democrats and the National Party were the two new main parties of France.
• Political "clubs" in French politics were on the rise.
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested and later beheaded.
• The Constitution of 1791 was signed by the king (who was forced to do so), and from then on, France functioned as a constitutional monarchy.

The Reign of Terror and the Three Estates

Many people were beheaded on the guillotine because they were seen as counter-revolutionaries and therefore... Continue reading "The French Revolution and Latin American Independence" »

The Carlist Wars: Spain's Defining 19th-Century Conflicts

These wars explain much about the problems associated with state building in modern Spain. They were not simply dynastic struggles; there were also conflicts between the Carlists (supporters of the Old Regime) and the Isabelines (in favor of liberal constitutionalism). Moreover, they can also be considered a war between high-class citizens (urban populations) and poor peasants (rural segments).

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The end of Ferdinand VII's regency allowed Mª Cristina to ascend to the throne until Isabella II could reign the country. This was possible due to the elimination of the Salic Law, which did not allow women to inherit the throne, and the promulgation of the Pragmatic

Debase

v. To lower in value, quality, or dignity; to cheapen.

Prophesy

v. To predict (something) by or as if by divine guidance.

Defray

v. To furnish money for.

Lucrative

Adj. Producing wealth or profit.

Countenance

n. Face; facial expression.

Stoicism

n. Indifference to pleasure or pain.

Warfare with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France

The warfare with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France took place from 1792-1815.

Sussex, Huntingdonshire, and West Riding

Former counties or divisions in southeastern England.

Ben Nevis and Helvellyn

Mountains in Britain.

Crash in 1720: South Sea Bubble

Financial crisis caused by the overvaluation of stock.

More into the Exchequer

More into the treasury than taxes on domestic goods.

Charles the Second

King of England from 1660 to 1685.... Continue reading "Key Historical and Literary Terms Defined" »

The Spanish Restoration Period

Alfonso XII and Maria Cristina

The Restoration began when Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) returned the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne in 1875.

• The conservative politician Cánovas del Castillo convinced Isabel II to abdicate in favor of her son Alfonso.
• This intervention was supported by the middle class and the army.

Key events:

1. Alfonso signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, in which he promised a constitutional government.
2. A military pronunciamiento (led by General Martínez Campos) proclaimed Alfonso king.
3. Alfonso XII died in 1885, before his legitimate son Alfonso XIII was born.
4. His widow, Maria Cristina, served as regent until Alfonso XIII came of age (1885-1902).

The Political System of the Restoration

The political... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration: Politics and Challenges" »

The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1788-1808)

• Charles IV (1788-1808) left power in the hands of Prime Minister Manuel Godoy.
• In 1807, Godoy allied with Napoleon after signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact included an agreement to invade and divide Portugal, an ally of Great Britain. Under this pretext, French troops entered the Peninsula and occupied strategic points, making it clear their intention was also to invade Spain.
• This situation caused the *Mutiny of Aranjuez* (1808), which forced Charles IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
• In May 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were moved to Bayonne, France. There, they abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who yielded the Spanish throne to his brother, Joseph

Social and Political Dynamics in Restoration Spain

The Workers' Movement

The workers’ movement gained strength after the Constitution of 1876 recognized the freedom of association. Anarchism gained support among Catalan factory workers and Andalusian peasants. The socialists founded the trade union UGT in 1888, which was strongest in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Regionalism and Nationalism

Regionalism and nationalism originated as a reaction against the centralist policies of the Restoration.

• Catalan Nationalists: Sought autonomy for Catalonia and demanded Catalan be decreed the official language of Catalonia (Bases of Manresa, 1892).
• Basque Nationalists: Defended their fueros (traditional rights) and traditions.
• Galician Nationalists:

Contrasting Perspectives on International Development

William Easterly

Background

• Born in 1957; PhD in Economics from MIT.
• Professor of Economics at NYU and prominent development economist.
• Author of books critiquing traditional foreign aid approaches, such as "The White Man's Burden" and "The Elusive Quest for Growth."

Key Arguments

• Skeptical of top-down, expert-driven development strategies.
• Emphasizes the importance of local ownership, accountability, and market-based solutions.
• Argues that aid can often be ineffective and even harmful if not implemented properly.

Richard Dowden

Background

• Born in 1949; British journalist and expert on African affairs.
• Executive Director of the Royal African Society.
• Author of "Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles.

The Thirty Years' War: Origins and Escalation

The Thirty Years' War began as an internal revolt within the Holy Roman Empire, pitting Protestant Princes against the new Catholic Emperor, Ferdinand II.

The Spark: Bohemian Revolt

It all started in the Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) when Ferdinand II, a Catholic, was elected king in 1617. He soon began to restrict the religious freedom of the predominantly Protestant population by closing and forbidding the construction of Protestant churches. This made him very unpopular, especially among the Protestant nobles.

The Defenestration of Prague

In 1618, a group of Protestant nobles captured the king's representatives in Prague and threw them out of the palace window! Miraculously, they... Continue reading "The Thirty Years' War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences" »