Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Spanish Architecture

There were three main styles:

• The Plateresque style of abundant decoration developed in the early 16th century. The facade of Salamanca University is an outstanding example.
• In the Classicist style, the harmony of a building was more important than its decoration. The palace of Carlos V in the Alhambra in Granada was built in the Classicist style, but this never became widespread in Spain.
• The Herrerian style became influential in the second half of the 16th century. Buildings were characterized by their sobriety and almost total lack of decoration. The monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, designed by Juan de Herrera, was the most famous example.

El Greco

El Greco, originally named Domenikos Theotokopoulos, was born in... Continue reading "Spanish Architecture, El Greco, and Authoritarian Monarchies in 15th-16th Century Europe" »

24: Autonomy Statute 79

Series of articles of the BAS 79 (still in use). Legal text signed by Adolfo Suarez. Author: the autonomous government of the region. First level.

Back to the end of Francoism and transition. After Franco’s death, people in the government changed. Suarez was introduced as a co-operator, and he started making some reforms. The first one was the Political Reform Bill that was submitted to a referendum. Once it was approved, that was the opening to democracy. Moreover, elections were held. In the central government, UCD was the winner. In the case of the Basque Country, PNV began writing the 1978 Constitution. Democratic. It recognized national sovereignty. Nation: constitutional monarchy with two chambers: congress/senate,... Continue reading "Autonomy Statute 79: The Basque Country's Path to Self-Governance" »

Causes of the February Revolution

The February Revolution was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War, as well as public dissatisfaction with the way the country was run on the home front. The economic challenges faced due to fighting a total war also contributed.

Short-Term Triggers

• The Tsar being away from Petrograd
• Contempt for the Tsarina
• The army's mutiny against the Tsar's rule
• Unusually mild winter weather
• Demonstrations in support of the Duma
• The International Women's Day march
• Industrial unrest and strikes
• Announcement of bread rationing and food shortages in Petrograd

Tsar Nicholas II's Response

Nicholas sent the police and soldiers into Petrograd to end the unrest. They opened fire on more than 50 people, which some... Continue reading "February Revolution 1917: Causes and Effects" »

Causes of World War I

• The competition led to an arms race.
• Nationalism was strong in Europe. Germany and Italy were unified, powerful nations.
• Nationalism caused trouble in the Balkans.
• Serbia became a free country in the Balkans.
• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
• Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
• On June 14, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed by a Serbian shooter.
• Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. Germany supported Austria-Hungary, and Russia supported Serbia.
• On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia.

Four Years of War

• Belgium was a neutral country, but on August 4, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium. Because of this, Great Britain declared war on Germany.
• Germany had enemies on

Looking for a glimpse into the ancient world?

A) Avebury, England: Touch the Past

Stonehenge is often the first stop for history enthusiasts visiting the UK. However, there's a hidden gem nearby that offers a more immersive experience: the Avebury stone circle. Unlike Stonehenge, where visitors are kept at a distance, Avebury allows you to walk among, touch, and truly connect with the ancient stones.

The Avebury stones, though less uniform than Stonehenge, possess a raw, ancient energy. Their survival is remarkable, considering they were once targeted for destruction by those seeking to erase traces of older religions. Some stones were even repurposed as building materials for local residences. Thankfully, marmalade manufacturer Alexander Keiller... Continue reading "Journey Through Time: Exploring the Ancient World's Hidden Gems" »

Causes of American Revolution

In 1733 the British Parliament passed the Tea Act, which hurt American merchants, who responded by attacking British ships laden with tea in Boston Harbor, known as the Boston Tea Party. This event was followed by the outbreak of the War of the American Revolution in 1775.

Declaration of Independence

There were important political changes. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which outlined the principles of nation sovereignty, separation of powers, and suffrage.

The colonies, led by General George Washington, won decisive victories at Saratoga and Yorktown. Then, Britain recognized the United States as an independent nation in the Treaty of Paris.

United States Constitution

The United... Continue reading "Causes and Impact of American and French Revolutions" »

Organic Law of the State

The Organic Law of Spain specifies that some areas of law should be regulated, such as the Laws of Development of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, which was the basis for the Statutes of Autonomy of the various autonomous communities of Spain. Juridically, organic laws are at the same level as ordinary laws. The difference between the two is in the more restrictive process for creating organic laws and in the matters that they regulate. It was written by Franco on January 11, 1967, and it is a first-level legal text.

During the last years of Franconism, there were more problems than ever, and the economic development did not manage to attract people’s support. Citizens asked for changes not only in the economy but in... Continue reading "Organic Law of Spain: Franco's Regime and Democratic Opposition" »

Mikhail Gorbachev

In the late 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev implemented a series of changes in his country's social, economic, and foreign policies designed to improve the standard of living and enter a new era with the United States. The cumulative effect of his "new thinking" was to end the Cold War, the breakdown of the Soviet Empire, and the Soviet Union itself.

Mikhail Gorbachev became head of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985.

Economic Challenges and Reforms

The Soviet economy in the mid-1980s faced serious challenges. Years of centralized controls had led to stagnation, and the Soviet economy was already straining to compete with the military buildup in the United States led by President Ronald Reagan. In response,... Continue reading "Mikhail Gorbachev: Reforms and the End of the Cold War" »

Coexistence and Conflict

Q: How long did Al-Andalus and the Christian kingdoms coexist?

A: They coexisted for nearly 800 years.

Early Resistance: Pelayo and the Battle of Covadonga

Q: Who was Pelayo, and what did he do?

A: Pelayo was one of the most important kings in the early Christian kingdoms. He organized the Battle of Covadonga in 722.

Q: Why did he go to prison?

A: Pelayo went to prison because he didn't pay taxes to the Muslim rulers.

Expansion and Consolidation

Q: What happened during the reign of Alfonso III?

A: Alfonso III changed the capital of the Kingdom of Asturias from Oviedo to Leon.

Q: Who was Fernán González, and what role did he play in the development of Castile?

A: Fernán González was a count who helped Castile become independent... Continue reading "The Rise of Christian Kingdoms in Medieval Iberia" »

Key Events in 20th Century Spanish History

Early 20th Century Crises

1. Copy and Complete in Your Notebook:

• The... 20th... Spain...

2. Similarities and Differences Between the Crises of 1909 and 1917:

• 1909 Crisis: There was widespread discontent among soldiers, which evolved into an anti-military and anti-clerical movement. This ultimately ended the country's stability.
• 1917 Crisis: Similar to 1909, but the entire population was involved in the revolution, leading Spain into a serious political crisis.

The Anual Disaster and Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

3. Reading and Map Analysis (Page 96):

• A) What happened in Anual in 1921? It was a significant Spanish defeat in North Africa against the Berbers.
• B) Who came to power in the aftermath of the Anual