Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

• Nation-state was not how political Communities were organized – nationalism is only 200 years old.

(ancient Greece city-states, ancient Indian republics and kingdoms, European monarchs/dynasties in feudal Kingdoms)

• Little agreement among writers on the Exact meaning of ‘nationalism’.

• Nationalism: The belief that a Group of people are united by a common history, tradition, language And culture, and hence they should establish a sovereign political Community of their own – nation.

• Ideology/movement that seeks to Establish a nation-state.

• Belief that the nation is the primary Focus of loyalty, the sole object of people’s allegiance.

• Sense of loyalty that makes people to Live and work within the modern state, even die for the state in

World War II: A Global Conflict

World War II (or the Second World War) was the largest armed conflict in history.

The Rise of Nazi Germany

For years, Germany's economy was weakened by excessive debt and hyperinflation, which caused widespread discontent with the government.

In 1929, the Wall Street Crash in New York triggered the worst economic crisis of the 20^th century. Its impact was so significant that the unemployment rate in Germany exploded. Because of this, nationalist groups like the Nazi Party emerged, seeking to create a "perfect" society (German-speaking, excluding homosexuals, disabled individuals, and others).

In 1933, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party, rose to power. Despite Germany's ban on expanding its military, Hitler'... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Axis vs Allies" »

Luddism: The First Movement

Luddism emerged in the early 19th century as a movement against the use of machines. Workers originally considered machines to be the root of their problems. The movement's leader was Ned Ludd.

Chartism: A Workers' Charter

In 1838, Chartism developed as a movement based on a workers' charter. This charter was sent to Parliament by a committee of workers with various petitions, including demands for universal suffrage and a secret ballot.

The Industrial Revolutions

The First Industrial Revolution occurred almost exclusively in England. The Second Industrial Revolution spread to other European countries and continents, including the USA and Japan. The Third Industrial Revolution took place in the mid-20th century.

The First

The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)

During the reign of Isabella II, Spain's moderate liberal party remained in government. The Moderate Government converted Spain into a conservative and centralist liberal state. In 1845, a new constitution was adopted. Suffrage was restricted, sovereignty shared between the courts and the crown. The state signed the concordat with the Holy See, agreeing to finance the church and stop privatization. In some periods, moderate liberals adopted measures to stop centralist taxes and create penal and national education systems. The political system weakened. The monarchy was politically active, favoring competition among the aristocracy, military, and clergy for the favor of the queen, which led to corruption. Moderates... Continue reading "Spain's Political Landscape: From Moderate Liberals to Republic" »

Mahatma Gandhi: A Life Dedicated to Truth and Non-Violence

Early Life and Influences

Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948), affectionately known as Mahatma Gandhi and Bapuji, was born on October 2nd, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, India. His father served as a Dewan in Porbandar and Rajkot, where Gandhi received his early education. Married at the age of 12 to Kasturbai, he later traveled to London to study law, qualifying for the Bar in 1891.

Gandhi's transformative experience in South Africa (1893-1914), where he fought against racial discrimination and injustice, shaped his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and non-violent resistance. He emerged as a prominent leader and advocate for human dignity.

The Gandhi Era and Indian Independence

Returning... Continue reading "Mahatma Gandhi: Life, Philosophy, and Political Ideals" »

Old English (Anglo-Saxon) Literature (449-1066)

Old English literature, also referred to as Anglo-Saxon literature, is dated between 449/600 (the invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) and 1100/1200 (the establishment of Norman rule). It is hypothesized that until the sixth century BC, the British Isles were inhabited by Iberians, and from the sixth to seventh centuries BC by Celts. It also represents the language, now known as Old English, that was spoken and written by Anglo-Saxons and their descendants in England.

This period was characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles, resulting in the mixing of several races, languages, and cultures. Life was mostly centered on ancestral tribes or clans. Initially, people... Continue reading "Anglo-Saxon Literature: History, Culture, and Key Works" »

Features in Modern English: Orthography and Phonology

Orthography

Fixing and Reducing Spelling Variation

• Spelling Reform Debate: Spelling reform in accordance with pronunciation was proposed but not successful due to its radical nature (e.g., John Hart's 'An Orthographie').
• Regularization of Spelling: Regularization based on traditional and etymological grounds proved successful.
• Standardization by 1700: By 1700, English largely became standardized, making texts from that period onward relatively easy for modern readers.
• Reflection of Late 15th-Century Pronunciation: Modern orthography reflects the pronunciation of the late 15th century.
• Changes in Orthographic Conventions: Distinction of graphemes u/v and i/j emerged.
• Etymological Respellings: Scholars

Democracy in the 19th Century

• Democratic movements advocated for the right of ordinary people to participate in politics. Supporters aimed to end the social and economic inequalities created by bourgeois liberalism.
• The petite bourgeoisie rejected the limited male suffrage imposed by the wealthy bourgeois.
• Key principles supported by 19th-century democrats included:
  • Universal manhood suffrage: The belief that all men should have the right to vote.
  • A preference for a republic as the form of government, considering hereditary monarchy incompatible with democracy.

19th Century Political Revolutions

• These revolutions finally brought an end to absolute monarchy in many areas.
• They were based on the principles of liberalism, nationalism, and democracy.

The

What is a Global City?

A global city, also known as a world city, is generally considered to be an important node in the global economic system (e.g., New York). It is a city that has a significant component of transnational elites.

Rome is a globalized (diversely global) city known around the world for its historical, demographic, and cultural trends, such as its image as a center of religious heritage. Rome has been crucial in the development of modern tourism, which is considered one of the side effects of economics.

Stereotypes

A stereotype is to believe unfairly that all people or things with a particular characteristic are the same. Common stereotypes of Rome include:

• The Eternal City (never-lasting)
• Romantic, free, and fun
• City of layers
• Ancient

2. THE FIRST World War

Was fought between 1914 and 1918, by various European countries and their colonies, the USA, Japan, China and some Latin American republics.

2.1. The causes of the war:

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire competed for control of the Balkans. At the same time, Serbia was angry about the expansion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into the area.

• France wanted to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine, which it had lost to the German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War. France and Germany also competed for control of Morocco.

• Great Britain saw the supremacy of each merchant navy threatened when the German Empire, become an economic power

These disputes created a pre-war atmosphere, and the European powers continued