Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

European Wars

The story of Europe is not about great achievements of which we can be proud. European nations have fought terrible wars against each other. In the 20th century, two wars that started on this continent spread and involved countries all over the world.

Founding of the European Union

If you want to prevent war, you have to work together. The first step is to control jointly the things needed for war: steel for weapons and energy for factories.

European Coal and Steel Community

That is why six European countries (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands) agreed to unite their steel and coal industries.

European Economic Community

The six countries got on so well that they decided to go a step further and set up the E.E.C.... Continue reading "A History of European Integration and Spanish Autonomy" »

The Catholic Monarchs and the Unification of Spain

Background

In the 15th century, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into five kingdoms, with the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon being the largest and most powerful. In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella, the sister of the Castilian King Henry IV. This union marked the beginning of a new era in Spanish history.

The Catholic Monarchs

Ferdinand and Isabella became known as the Catholic Monarchs. They preserved the autonomy and independence of each kingdom, but they also worked together to strengthen the monarchy and unify Spain.

Ferdinand became king of Aragon in 1479, and Isabella defeated her niece Joanna la Beltraneja in a civil war that lasted five years. After the war,... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs and the Age of Exploration" »

The Inter-War Years: A Transformative Era

The inter-war years (1918-1939) were marked by significant economic and political developments across the globe.

Economic Prosperity and Crisis

Europe and the United States initially enjoyed a period of economic prosperity, famously known as the Roaring Twenties. However, this era of growth dramatically ended after 1929, when a severe economic crisis, the Great Depression, began.

Political Landscape Shifts

Politically, countries like Great Britain, France, and the United States maintained their democratic systems. In contrast, many other nations saw the establishment of authoritarian dictatorships. Notably, the Soviet Union and Germany evolved into totalitarian regimes.

Spain's Path: From Dictatorship to

The Russian Revolution is dated to November 1917 (October 1917 on the Russian calendar), when Bolshevik Party forces took over the government offices in Petrograd. However, the problems that led toward revolution had been developing for generations. The revolution’s consequences, too, were far-reaching—the Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary Russia, remained in power until 1991.

Causes of the Russian Revolution

• Widespread suffering under **autocracy**—a form of government in which one person, in this case the **Czar**, has absolute power.
• Weak leadership of **Czar Nicholas II**, who clung to autocracy despite changing times.
• Poor working conditions, low wages, and hazards of industrialization.
• Emergence of new revolutionary

World War I was the first global conflict since the Industrial Revolution, and with it came a new generation of weapons. The causes of the First World War are heterogeneous, but their combination led to the start of the Great War in 1914, ending in 1918. Among the causes of the First World War are the following: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism, and Alliances. The Treaty of Versailles points to Germany as responsible for the war. Surely it wasn't the only responsible party, but Germany's actions were the ones that led to the war. The truth is that once the war was ending, all the responsibility for its beginning fell on Germany, and this was reflected in writing in Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). This was the first peace... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Was Germany to Blame?" »

The Germania Revolt (1519-1523)

Between 1519 and 1523, significant unrest occurred, notably the Germania Revolt, which also affected Mallorca and Valencia. The reasons were similar to other contemporary uprisings, but these revolts were led by the Germanías (guilds) who confronted both the king and the nobility. The leaders of the revolt were severely repressed.

Organization of Charles V's Empire

The empire of Charles V comprised many diverse territories, each possessing its own laws and institutions. Charles V did not wield absolute power; crucial decisions required the approval of the Parliaments within each kingdom.

The royal court was itinerant, moving between locations. Each territory was managed by a viceroy or governor who ruled in the... Continue reading "Charles V's Empire: Germania Revolt & European Conflicts" »

Imperialism and its Impact (1870-1914)

Imperialism is the control exercised by certain powerful states over other territories. In the late 19th century, a new, complex type of imperialism took shape on a much larger scale. This new imperialism reached its height between 1870 and 1914 and was dominated by the industrialized countries (colonial empires).

Types of Colonial Administration

• Colony: Territory dominated entirely by the occupying power. There are two types: settler colonies and exploitation colonies.
• Protectorate: Theoretically, the metropole respected the native government.
• Concession: Administration and occupation of a territory within a state for the purpose of trade.

Causes of Imperialism

• Demographic: European demographic growth over the

The Cold War

The Cold War was a period of constant tension between the United States and the USSR that lasted from 1948 to 1989. During these years, each superpower aimed to demonstrate and increase its own power, while at the same time limiting or reducing the influence of the other. However, both the Americans and the Soviets wanted to avoid a direct military confrontation, since this could lead to nuclear war.

The Great Depression

At the end of the 1920s, a series of problems in the United States caused a major economic crisis, known as the Great Depression. This crisis lasted until the end of the 1930s and brought an end to the prosperous, consumer lifestyle of the previous decade.

Causes of the Great Depression

The problems that led to the... Continue reading "The Cold War and Great Depression: A Comparative Analysis" »

This analysis delves into Charles Sackville, Earl of Dorset's poem, "My Opinion," penned around 1681. The poem offers a sharp commentary on the tumultuous succession conflict that marked the final years of Charles II's reign in England.

Historical Context: Charles II and the Restoration Era

Charles II's Reign and Early Restoration

Charles II reigned in England from 1661 to 1685. His early life included a period of exile when England was a republic under Cromwell's regime, the Commonwealth, following the execution of Charles I at the end of the English Civil War. This restrictive regime led to widespread discontent. In 1659, soon after Cromwell's death, the English people compelled his son and successor, Richard, to abdicate and recalled Charles... Continue reading "Charles Sackville's 'My Opinion': Restoration Political Satire" »

From Progressive 2-Years to the Glorious Revolution (1854-1868)

Progressive 2-Years (1854-1856)

Narvaez's power was becoming more and more dictatorial, which provoked discontent and ended in a coup d'etat by General O'Donnell. He published the Manzanares Manifesto and obtained wide popular backing. He created a new political party: the Liberal Union (between moderates and progressives).

Finally, the coup d'etat was successful and Espartero returned and formed a government.

In this time, some measures were adopted such as the Madoz disentitlement, the elaboration of a new progressive constitution (never applied) by the Constituent Courts, and the creation of the Railroad Law for economic modernization.

New political groups appeared:

• Democrats: asked