Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Outbreak of World War I (1914 Crisis)

In 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria led Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, to declare war on Serbia, which was backed by Russia. This triggered a wider conflict with the formation of alliances:

• The Central Powers: Germany and Austria-Hungary.
• The Allies: France, Russia, and the UK (United Kingdom).

Phase 1: War of Movement (1914)

Germany initially planned to quickly defeat France on the Western Front but was halted at the Battle of the Marne. On the Eastern Front, Russian forces attacked Germany, causing Germany to divert troops, which ultimately helped France.

Phase 2: Trench Warfare (1915–1916)

Fronts stabilized, and both sides built extensive trenches, leading to heavy... Continue reading "World War I and the Russian Revolution: Conflict, Consequences, and Change" »

The Gilded Age: A Transformative Period in U.S. History

While many historians have argued that the political history of the United States between 1877 and 1901 was void of any real leadership, meaning, or issues, this assertion is far from accurate. This era was profoundly meaningful, shaped by three major developments that had lasting impacts on the nation:

• The expansion of nationwide railroad networks.
• The rapid growth of industrial output and the rise of the labor movement.
• The massive influx of immigration and its social consequences.

The Rise of a National Railroad Network

The establishment of nationwide railroads that spanned the country from east to west was a pivotal event in American history during this period. These networks had significant... Continue reading "The Gilded Age: Shaping Modern America (1877-1901)" »

The Second Republic of Spain (1931-1936)

The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed in 1931 after the departure of King Alfonso XIII following municipal elections largely won by Republican candidates. The Republic represented a significant shift towards modernization and social reform, driven primarily by workers and leftist parties.

Key Events of the Second Republic:

• April 1931: The Second Republic is proclaimed, and Alfonso XIII goes into exile. (PSOE - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)
• December 1931: The Republican Constitution is approved.
• November 1933: Right-wing parties win general elections. (CEDA - Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups)
• February 1936: The Popular Front (a coalition of left-wing parties) wins the general elections.

Early Francoism: The Autarky Period (1939–1959)

Francoism was a political system created by Francisco Franco.

It rejected democracy and was based on militarism, conservative Catholicism, and the unity of Spain. This early period of the regime lasted from 1939 to 1959.

Characteristics of the Regime

• All power was concentrated in Franco’s hands.
• He abolished the Constitution, elections, and Parliament.
• Political parties and trade unions were banned, except for the official party, the **Falange and JONS**.
• It was a highly centralized state.
• There was widespread persecution and violence against opponents of the regime.

Post-War Conditions and Autarky

After the Civil War, Spain was devastated. Approximately 1 million people died, and the country suffered... Continue reading "The Franco Dictatorship: History and Characteristics (1939–1975)" »

Decolonization: A Global Transformation

Decolonization was the historical process through which the Asian and African colonies of European Empires gained independence between 1945 and 1975. As a consequence, the Third World appeared, a bloc of former colonies not aligned with the US or the Soviet Union.

Causes of Decolonization

Metropolitan Causes

The causes originated both within the European empires and in the colonies.

• Increasing Awareness: European empires fought against the Axis powers for freedom and democracy and could no longer justify their colonial domination ideologically.
• Economic Factors: After the war, the metropolitan powers lacked sufficient military and economic resources to control their colonies; furthermore, it was no longer profitable.

The Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization

On the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the main urban settlements that were to play a leading role in the three millennia of Mesopotamian history emerged. The periodic overflowing of their banks irrigated and enriched the surrounding land, allowing intensive agricultural exploitation. This favored the appearance of stable settlements and their development. Cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Assur, Mari, and Babylon, among many others, arose, governed independently from a temple-palace.

Mesopotamian Society and Governance

The temple-palace organized the economy and held the political and military monopoly, as it was where the production and surplus from their economic activities were stored. Society... Continue reading "Mesopotamian Civilization: Society, Economy, Religion" »

Lenin's Foundation of Soviet Power

Lenin and Stalin were both central figures in Soviet history, shaping the course of the state's political development through authoritarian rule. Lenin, the founder of Soviet Russia, built the foundation for a centralized one-party state, justified by his interpretation of Marxism and the "dictatorship of the proletariat." He exercised political authority through the establishment of key structures like the Soviets, the Cheka (secret police), and the Red Army. Lenin used political repression, such as the Red Terror, to maintain control, and introduced War Communism followed by the New Economic Policy (NEP) to stabilize the economy. Though he centralized power, Lenin maintained a more consultative leadership... Continue reading "Lenin vs Stalin: Soviet Rule Compared" »

The Cold War: Key Policies and Events

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. Here's a look at some key events and policies:

The Truman Doctrine

Introduced in 1947 by President Harry Truman, the Truman Doctrine aimed to defend democracies against the spread of communism.

The Marshall Plan

Also introduced in 1947, the Marshall Plan was designed to help European countries rebuild their economies after World War II.

NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Established in 1949, NATO is a military alliance between the USA and Western Bloc countries.

The Warsaw Pact

Formed in 1955, the Warsaw Pact was a military alliance between the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries, including... Continue reading "Cold War: Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and Key Events" »

Franco's Spain was characterized by a personal dictatorship, militarism, Catholicism, and Spanish unitary nationalism. It operated as a single-party state, with the Spanish Falange suppressing political opposition and trade unions. The country experienced a permanent division between the victors and the vanquished.

Social support for the regime came from the army, the church, the Falange, traditionalists, landowners, financiers, business owners, small and medium agricultural owners, and the middle class.

The totalitarian stage saw the establishment of a new political regime without a constitution or democratic freedoms, concentrating all power in Franco. Institutions from the Republican era were dismantled, including the 1931 Constitution with... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Dictatorship to Economic Liberalization" »